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ABSTRACT
This article sheds light upon an important though widely forgotten episode of Russian American history, illustrating the efforts of prominent Russian statesman, Count Sergei Witte, to educate Americans about his native land. While touring Columbia University in the summer of 1905 and discovering the absence of documents and works relating to Russian economic and social conditions in its library, Witte ordered various Russian governmental agencies to arrange for collections of their most important publications to be shipped there. Matching previously unpublished archival materials in the Russian State Historical Archive (RGIA) with corresponding records at Columbia made it possible to illuminate the generous imperial gift of thousands of volumes of official publications, which became the foundation of the Slavic section of Columbia University Library. The article also touches upon the role of prominent members of the Columbia University Board of Trustees in welcoming Count Witte and expands on Warburg’s donation that allowed Columbia to subscribe to many important papers and purchase books and pamphlets relating to the first Russian revolution.
Acknowledgments
While some of the research for the article had been staged before the COVID-19 pandemic began, most of it was written when major depositories all over the country were closed to the public. The article would not have been possible to complete without the unreserved and thoroughly professional assistance of librarians, bibliographers, and collections curators. I would especially like to thank Bogdan Horbal, the curator for Slavic and East European Collections, The New York Public Library, Jocelyn Wilk, Tanya Chebotarev, and Yekaterina Davidenko, of the Columbia Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Robert H. Davis, Jr., the librarian for Russian, Eurasian and East European Studies, Columbia University Libraries, Jennifer Govan of the Teachers College, Columbia University, Julianna Witt of the Jacob Rader Marcus Center of the American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati Ohio, and Tracey Felder of the Leo Baeck Institute in New York City. I also want to express my gratitude to Dmitry Nechiporuk of Tyumen’ State University, Russia, for his insights on Warburg’s benefaction, and to Tobie Mathew, the author of Greetings from the Barricades: Revolutionary Postcards in Imperial Russia (2018), for his time and introduction to the world of Russian Revolutionary caricature, as well as assistance with identifying the images exhibited at the Columbia University Library in early 1907. A portion of the article appeared in a collection of essays published in memory of Professor Alexander A. Fursenko. See, “Sergei Witte and the Foundation of the Slavic Collection at Columbia University Library” in Russia and the United States: Perceiving Each Other (SPb: Nestor-Istoriia, 2015), 200–209.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 “Sergius Witte,” New York Times, March 14, 1915, 2. Among other epithets was one of a “creator of modern Russia,” (“Conant Describes Witte’s Character,” New York Times, March 21, 1915, 7). He was also called “one of the most practical men,” who “insisted on administrative efficiency and economic soundness, on building up the material welfare of the people and the economic solidity of the government” (“Count Witte Dies in Petrograd,” New York Times, March 14, 1915, 3) and “the greatest Russian statesman of modern times” (“[Andrew Dickson] White Mourns De Witte: Ex Ambassador Tells of Lost Chance to Get Justice for Jews,” New York Times, April 2, 1915, 11). The spelling of Witte’s first name is kept as it is used in various primary sources throughout the article.
2 Horace G. Lunt, “On the History of Slavic Studies in the United States,” Slavic Review 46, no. 2 (Summer 1987): 296.
3 W. B. Thorson, “American Public Opinion and the Portsmouth Peace Conference,” American Historical Review 53, no. 3 (April 1948): 139.
4 Sergei Iul’evich Witte, The Memoirs of Count Witte, trans. and ed. Abraham Yarmolinsky (Garden City: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1921), 140.
5 “New Books Reviewed: The Memoirs of Count Witte. Translated and Edited by Abraham Yarmolinsky (Garden City: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1921),” The North American Review 214, no. 788 (July 1921): 139.
6 Charles Johnston, “Sergé Iulitch Witté,” The North American Review 181, no. 586 (September 1905): 447.
7 “Opening Exercises: Degree of LLD Conferred on Baron Komura and Mr. Sergius Witte,” Columbia Spectator 49, no. 2 (September 28, 1905): 3.
8 “Opening Exercises,” 1.
9 Francis Sedgwick Bangs (1855–1920) was a “devoted and unselfish Trustee” for twenty years. From 1900, when he was elected, he served on the Committee on Finance and the Committee on Education. He strongly believed that a modern university in a democratic society “represents the public and rests upon the public,” influencing public opinion and being in the forefront of a nation’s intellectual progress. Conferring an honorable doctorate degree upon two noble statesmen of foreign countries, was both a public relations act for the school and a means of raising awareness of the role of the United States in the world affairs. See Historical Biographical File (HBF) of Francis Sedgwick Bangs, Box 19, folder 34, University Archives (UA), Rare Book and Manuscript Library (RBML), Columbia University Libraries (CUL).
William Bayard Cutting (1850–1912) was a successful lawyer and, from 1880, a senior trustee of Columbia College for nearly thirty-two years. When in 1896 the New York Botanical Garden was organized, Cutting, a native New Yorker, became its director. One of his last acts was a characteristically generous contribution for the building of a Synod Hall on the campus of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine. In addition to corporate work, Mr. Cutting, who also served as president of the Improved Dwellings Association located in Yorkville, exerted himself in many other practical ways to improve the conditions of the city’s poor. See George Lockhart Rives, “William Bayard Cutting,” Columbia University Quarterly 14 (June 1912): 284–91.
10 John B. Pine to the Chairman of the Trustees George L. Rives, Esq. (New Port, R.I.). New York, September 8, 1905. Central Files, Box 297, folder 23. UA, RBML, CUL.
11 John B. Pine to George L. Rives, Esq. (New Port, R.I.). New York, September 8, 1905.
12 John B. Pine to the Russian Consul General Nicholas Lodygensky. New York, September 12, 1905. Central Files, Box 297, folder 23. UA, RBML, CUL.
13 “The Russian and Japanese Peace Envoys,” Independent (August 3, 1905): 274–75; Johnston, “Sergé Iulitch Witté,” 435–47. This last article attributes Witte’s action in standing against the war in the east to “the centuries of heredity” of what the author calls “a great race of sturdy courage, lovers of liberty.” See Johnston, “Sergé Iulitch Witté,” 436. The same piece depicted Witte’s life as a truly American success story, comparing that Russian “strenuous and successful businessman” with great American “captains of industry.” That, according to the author, stands “in such sharp contrast to the ideology of so many Russian statesmen.” (436–37). A translator of many of Witte’s state papers, Johnston also calls the former Finance Minister “a most able disciple and coadjutor” of President McKinley’s tariff policy. (440). Another “point of likeness” with President McKinley, writes Johnston, was Witte’s introduction of the gold standard into Russia. (444).
14 John B. Pine to George L. Rives, Esq. (New Port, R.I.). New York, September 8, 1905.
15 The telegram addressed to Witte in Paris reads: “Université Columbia désire conférer diplôme honorifique Docteur en Droit 27 Septembre. Prière télégraphier acceptation qui doit être annoncée publiquement 27. Butler, President.” New York, n. d. Central Files, Box. 297, folder 23. UA, RBML, CUL. On the 19th of September, Witte responded with the following cablegram: “It is with a special pride that I have the happiness to accept the honor which you intend to confer upon me and by which I am highly flattered.” Witte to Butler. Paris, September 19, 1905. Central Files, Box. 297, folder 23. UA, RBML, CUL.
16 Rev. Dr. Morgan Dix (1827–1908) was also president of the standing committee of the diocese of New York, trustee of two great charities – the Sailors’ Snug Harbor and the Leake and Watts Orphan Asylum –, vice-president of the Protestant Episcopal Public School of New York, and of the Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. He was an ardent collector of rare books and manuscripts, and his library contained many highly valuable examples of medieval literary treasures, along with an extensive collection of Americana. See HBF of Dr. Rev. Morgan Dix, Box 79, file 35, UA, RBML, CUL; George L. Rives, “Morgan Dix,” Columbia University Quarterly 10 (June 1908): 333–6.
17 John B. Pine to George L. Rives, Esq. (New Port, R.I.). New York, September 8, 1905.
18 A note to Nicholas Lodygensky was sent on September 22, inviting him to the university’s opening ceremonies and identifying a meeting place as the Trustees’ Room of Low building. John B. Pine to Nicholas Lodygensky. New York, September 22, 1905. Central Files, Box 297, folder 23. UA, RBML, CUL.
19 See an article describing the event in the New York Sun “Witte and Komura Honored: Columbia Confers Degree of L.L.D at Opening Exercises,” The Sun, September 28, 1905, 4. After the degree was officially conferred, President Butler sent Witte, who was in Berlin, a telegram that read: “diplôme honorifique Docteur en Droit conféré aujourd’hui séance solennelle après preséntation par Seth Low, ancien maire New York, etc. Felicitations. Butler, Président Université Columbia. Butler to Witte. New York, n. d. (September 27, 1905). Central Files, Box 297, folder 23. UA, RBML, CUL.
20 John B. Pine to G. Wilenkin. New York, September 28, 1905. Central Files, Box 297, folder 23. UA, RBML, CUL.
21 See John B. Pine to George L. Rives, Esq. (New Port, R.I.). New York, September 8, 1905.
22 John B. Pine to G. Wilenkin. New York, September 28, 1905. See articles entitled “Degrees for the Envoys: Columbia Honors Them. M. Witte and Baron Komura Honorary Doctors of Law,” New York Tribune, September 28, 1905, 8, and “Witte and Komura Honored: Columbia Confers Degree of L.L.D at Opening Exercises,” The Sun, September 28, 1905, 4.
23 A letter to Columbia President Murray Butler. New York, September 15, 1905. Central Files, Box 297, folder 23. UA, RBML, CUL.
24 John B. Pine to George L. Rives, Esq. (New Port, R.I.). New York, September 8, 1905.
25 See Witte’s description of his visit to Columbia University in his volume, The Memoirs of Count Witte, 171.
26 Canfield to Witte, New York, March 28, 1906. Fond 560“O peresylke Kolumbiiskomu universitetu v N’yu Iorke russkikh ofitsial’nykh izdanii,” opis’ 26, delo 532, listy 134–135. Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennii Istoricheskii Arhiv (Russian State Historical Archive) (RGIA), St. Petersburg, Russian Federation.
27 Canfield to Witte, New York, September 1905, Fond 560, delo 532, list 5, and December 21, 1905, Fond 560, delo 532, list 90. RGIA.
28 James Hulme Canfield, “Report of the Librarian for the Academic Year Ending June 30, 1907,” in Annual Reports of the President and Treasurer to the Trustees (New York: Columbia University. Office of the President, 1907), 188.
29 Having ordered materials pertinent to the history of the First Russian Duma for the Imperial Library, Witte arranged to have a set sent to the Columbia University Library as well. See Charles Morley, “Major Russian Collections in American Libraries,” The Slavonic and East European Review 29, no. 72 (December 1950): 265.
30 A letter from the Ministry of Finance to Akim M. Zolotarev, an Executive director of the Central Statistics Committee. September 19, 1905. Fond 560, opis’ 26, delo 532, list 9, RGIA.
31 Morley, “Major Russian Collections in American Libraries,” 265.
32 The best inventory of all the publications and agencies involved in the initiative is a collection of documents in the Russian State Historical Archives (RGIA) in St. Petersburg. The extensive correspondence between officials from government agencies with lists of publications attached to their letters is in the file “O peresylke Kolumbiiskomu universitetu v N’yu Iorke russkikh ofitsial’nykh izdanii” (Re: Shipment of Russian official publications to Columbia University in the City of New York). Fond 560, opis’ 26, delo 532.
33 See a letter addressed to Evgenii D. Lvoff from the Trustees, or a letter by Canfield dated December 21, 1905. Fond 560, opis’ 26, delo 532, lists 88, 89, and 90. RGIA.
34 See HBF of George L. Rives, Box 263, folder 26, UA, RBML, CUL.
35 William Dawson Johnston, “The Library Resources of New York City and Their Increase,” Columbia University Quarterly XIII, no. 2 (March 1911): 163–64.
36 Johnston, “The Library Resources of New York City and Their Increase,” 164–66.
37 Vladimir G. Simkhovitch, “University Library Collections: Monumenta and Rariora,” Columbia University Quarterly 13, no 2 (March 1911): 180.
38 Canfield to Witte, New York, March 1906, 28. Fond 560, opis’ 26, delo 532, RGIA. The library continues making substantial individual purchases and is engaged in systematic expansion of its collection of Russian editions, originally established by the Russian statesman. Witte donated books to Russian schools as well. His intentions to supply local libraries with materials about Russia’s industries and the country’s economic and cultural developments were well known in St. Petersburg, where he was also one of the founders of the Polytechnic Institute. One of his most famous “university” collections was that of this educational establishment. He would often donate books to its library, as well as splendid photo albums, which reflected Russia’s achievements in industrial development, trade, and cultural innovations. Witte’s intention to “educate” Russia about itself was as strong as his desire to inform the world about it. After his death, Witte’s widow gave St. Petersburg Polytechnic University most of her late husband’s library. Unfortunately, because of the war and revolution, the collection was dispersed in the general stacks and has not been preserved as a whole and unique body of literature. The only document that indicates that certain volumes were donated on Witte’s behalf, similar to the situation at Columbia, would be the acquisition list. To read more about Witte’s donation to St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, see Nadezhda K. Figurovskaya and Aleksander D. Stepansky, Sergei Yulyevich Witte – Gosudarstvenniy deyatel’, reformator, ekonomist: k stopyatidesyatiletiyu so dnya rozhdenia, vol. 2 (M., Institut ekonomiki RAN, 1999), 144.
39 John A. Krout to Vera Naryshkina. New York, 31 October 1951. Sergei Iul’evich Witte papers. Bakhmeteff Archive of Russian and East European Culture. RBML, CUL.
40 Philip E. Mosely to Roland Orvil Baughman (1902–1967) New York, March 6, 1952. Sergei Iul’evich Witte papers. Bakhmeteff Archive of Russian and East European Culture, RBML CUL.
41 Zosa Szajkowski, “Paul Nathan, Lucien Wolf, Jacob H. Schiff and the Jewish Revolutionary Movements in Eastern Europe 1903–1917,” Jewish Social Studies 29, no. 1 (January 1967): 17.
42 Ibid.
43 Arthur W. Thompson, “The Reception of Russian Revolutionary Leaders in America, 1904–1906,” American Quarterly 18, no. 3 (Autumn 1966): 454.
44 Ibid.
45 Szajkowski, “Paul Nathan, Lucien Wolf, Jacob H. Schiff and the Jewish Revolutionary Movements in Eastern Europe 1903–1917,” 21.
46 Simkhovitch, “University Library Collections: Monumenta and Rariora,” 181.
47 Canfield, “Report of the Librarian for the Academic Year Ending June 30, 1907,” 192.
48 Wolf to Oscar A. Straus of New York, February 24, 1904. The David Mowshowitch Collection at the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research. New York, 3944–45. Cited in Szajkowski, “Paul Nathan, Lucien Wolf, Jacob H. Schiff and the Jewish Revolutionary Movements in Eastern Europe 1903–1917,” 5.
49 Schiff to Dr. Nathan, December 28, 1904. Schiff papers, box. 20, immigration. The Cyrus Adler and Jacob H. Schiff Collections at the Library of The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, NY (JTS) (destroyed in the fire of 18 April 1966). Cited in Szajkowski, “Paul Nathan, Lucien Wolf, Jacob H. Schiff and the Jewish Revolutionary Movements in Eastern Europe 1903–1917,” 5. During his stay in the United States, Witte visited the Lower East Side, densely populated with Jews who had immigrated from the Russian Empire, and met with Jewish deputations, which included Jacob Schiff, Professor Edwin R. A. Seligman, and a former American Ambassador to Constantinople Oscar Straus. It is not surprising that Schiff grew skeptical of Witte’s ability to achieve considerable concessions for Jews in Russia, as the Count argued that “an immediate and complete removal of their legal disabilities would … do them more harm than good.” The Memoirs of Count Witte, 164. Witte’s tour around New York, which included lower Manhattan, as well as his meeting with the Jewish leaders, received broad coverage in the press. See, for example, “Plans for Envoys,” Washington Post, August 4, 1905, 1; “Jews under the Czar: Subject of Conference Between Witte and Bankers. No talk of Loan to Russia; Envoy Explained to Bankers Conditions of Jews in His Country,” Washington Post, August 15, 1905, 3.
50 Schiff to Nathan, December 29, 1905. Schiff papers, JTS, box. 25.
51 Dr. Harry Friedenwald to Cyrus Adler, March 7, 1907. Adler papers. Archives of the American Jewish Committee. New York. Cited in Szajkowski, “Paul Nathan, Lucien Wolf, Jacob H. Schiff and the Jewish Revolutionary Movements in Eastern Europe 1903–1917,” 8.
52 Szajkowski, “Paul Nathan, Lucien Wolf, Jacob H. Schiff and the Jewish Revolutionary Movements in Eastern Europe 1903–1917,” 9.
53 Ibid., 11.
54 Ibid., 22.
55 Isidor Straus, a Bavarian-born American Jewish businessman, co-owner of Macy’s department store. From January 30, 1894 to March 3, 1895 Straus served as a US Congressman from New York in the Fifty-Third Congress. Along with his wife, Ida, Straus perished in the wreck of the steamship Titanic on April 15, 1912. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Available at https://bioguide.congress.gov/search/bio/S001000;
In 1920, Governor Al Smith designated Greenbaum Associate Justice of the Appellate Division of the New York Supreme Court, First Judicial Department. Justice Greenbaum was president of the Educational Alliance from 1912 to 1926. He also served as president of the Aguilar Free Library Society; had been a trustee of the New York Public Library, as well as a trustee of the League for Political Education, Jewish Welfare Board, and Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Historical Society of the New York Courts. Available at https://history.nycourts.gov/biography/samuel-greenbaum/;
Myer S. Isaacs was the son of a Dutch-born American educator, philanthropist, and rabbi, the Reverend Samuel M. C. Isaacs, who was one of the officiating clergymen at President Abraham Lincoln’s funeral. The Isaacs would have a great influence upon the Jewry of the 19th century New York. They fought for the rights of Jews and founded numerous organizations for the relief of Jews in the United States and abroad. In 1857, with the help of his sons, Samuel Isaacs founded the Jewish Messenger, that later merged with the American Hebrew. “Biographical Note,” Myer S. Isaacs (1841–1904) Collection. Center for Jewish History, New York. Available at https://archives.cjh.org//repositories/3/resources/6427;
Morris Loeb led an extraordinary life as a chemist, teacher, and philanthropist. For more information, see Martin D. Saltzman, “Morris Loeb: Ostwald’s First American Student and America’s First Physical Chemist,” The Bulletin for the History of Chemistry 22 (1998): 10–15; Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman was an American economist who spent his entire academic career at Columbia University in New York City. Professor Seligman assembled one of the best libraries in the world relating to the development of economics. Bought by Columbia University, the Seligman Library is in continual use by researchers. Housing reform was one of his life-long interests. He helped Stanton Coit to establish the Neighborhood Guild, that is now known as the University Settlement House, and served as president of the Greenwich House, founded by the wife of another Columbia Professor of Economics, Dr. Simkhovitch. Seligman’s treatise upon The Income Tax, published in 1911 and expanded in 1914, discussed principles put into practice by Congress in the income-tax law of 1913. Wesley C. Mitchell, “Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, 1861–1939,” American Economic Review 29, no. 4 (December 1939): 911–13.
56 The Aguilar branch opened on February 28, 1903. It was named for Sephardic Jewish author Grace Aguilar. The branch was designed by architects Herts and Tallant and built with funds donated by Andrew Carnegie. In 1905, when the Aguilar joined The New York Public Library, it served large Jewish and Italian immigrant populations.
57 Ron Chernow, The Warburgs: the Twentieth-Century Odyssey of a Remarkable Jewish Family (New York: Vintage Books, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC, 2016), 99.
58 See Lillian D. Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1915), 1, 6–8.
59 Chernow, The Warburgs, 99.
60 Ibid.
61 Ibid.
62 Ibid.
63 Ibid.
64 Ernest Poole, The Bridge: My Own Story (New York: MacMillan, 1940), 73–74.
65 Chernow, The Warburgs, 98.
66 A little over a decade later, by March 1917, Lillian Wald found herself in the center of a coalition between “Russian political leaders, native-born Progressives, [and] up- and downtown Jews.” John Reed referred to Henry Street Settlement, which was “energized by Russian Jewish immigrants and the support of the German Jewish elite,” as “the American home of the Russian Revolution.” See John Reed, “East Side Exiles Stirred by Russian Envoy’s ‘Welcome Home’: Orthodox and Jews alike Jubilant Over Bakhmetieff’s Message to Crowds that Swarmed Around Henry Street Settlement,” The Evening Mail, July 11, 1917.
67 Marjorie N. Feld, “‘An Actual Working out of Internationalism’: Russian Politics, Zionism, and Lillian Wald’s Ethnic Progressivism,” The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2, no. 2 (April 2003): 131.
68 Simkhovitch, “University Library Collections: Monumenta and Rariora,” 181.
69 Ibid.
70 Sergei Witte warned against this publication as “the most leftist, ‘anarchic’ edition”. S. Ia. Makhonina, “Istoria russkoi zhurnalistiki. Vremia i Pressa (1890-e–1918 g.g.).” Available at http://www.evartist.narod.ru/text1/86.htm.
71 Galina Nikolaevna Boeva, “V. P. Burenin’s Parodies in the Anti-Semitic Discourse of the Beginning of the 20th Century,” Izvestiia Saratovskogo Universiteta (Nov. Ser.), Ser. Philology. Journalism 19, no. 3 (2019): 331–335. Both Suvorin and Burenin were harshly criticized for their explicitly anti-Dreyfus position propagated by the newspaper. See Boeva, “V. P. Burenin’s Parodies in the Anti-Semitic Discourse”, 331.
72 Canfield, “Report of the Librarian for the Academic Year Ending June 30, 1907 ,” 192.
73 Ibid.
74 Jared S. Ingersoll, “Columbia University Libraries’ Slavic and East European Collections: A Preliminary History at 100 Years,” Russian and East European Books and Manuscripts in the United States 4, no. 4 (September 2003): 80.
75 Canfield, “Report of the Librarian for the Academic Year Ending June 30, 1907,” 192; Gazety dorevoliutsionnoi Rossii: 1703–1917: katalog, compiled by T.V. Akopian et al. (Sankt-Peterburg: Rossiiskaia natsional’naia biblioteka, 2007), 248.
76 Simkhovitch, “University Library Collections: Monumenta and Rariora,” 181.
77 Simkhovitch to Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, September 10, 1901, Canfield, James Hulme, Central Files, Box. 659, folder 25. UA, RBML, CUL.
78 “Editorial Comment,” A valuable Collection, Columbia University Quarterly 5 (1902–1903): 316; “The University,” The Library, Columbia University Quarterly 5 (1902–1903): 328–329. Available at https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hwxp7z&view=1up&seq=383&q1=anarchistic.
79 Simkhovitch, “University Library Collections: Monumenta and Rariora,”180.
80 “Editorial Comment,” A Valuable Collection, 316.
81 In 1915, the Library of Congress acquired approximately a thousand volumes and periodicals relating to the social revolutionary movements in Europe since the beginning of the nineteenth century, collected by Simkhovitch. Library of Congress, Report of the Librarian of Congress and Report of the Superintendent of the Library Building and Grounds for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1915 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1915), 52–53.
82 For examples of items from Walling’s collection, see his illustrated article “The Village Against the Czar,” The Independent LXII, no. 3041 (14 March 1907): 587–94.
83 Canfield, “Report of the Librarian for the Academic Year Ending June 30, 1907,” 191.
84 “Russian Cartoons Show: Scenes of the Revolution on Exhibition at Columbia,” New York Times, February 27, 1907, 3; “Russian Struggle for Liberty Told in Cartoon,” New York Times, March 3, 1907, SM7.
85 “Exhibition of Russian Cartoons,” Columbia Spectator L, no. 113 (February 27, 1907): 2; “Russian Cartoons Show: Scenes of the Revolution on Exhibition at Columbia.”
86 Witte, The Memoirs of Count Witte, 139–40.
87 “Russian Cartoons Show: Scenes of the Revolution on Exhibition at Columbia.”
88 See Pulemet 1 (November 13, 1905); Tobie Mathew, Greetings from the Barricades: Revolutionary Postcards in Imperial Russia (London: Four Corners Book, 2018), 268; Oleg Minin, “The Value of the Liberated World: The Russian Satirical Press of 1905 and the Theory of Cultural Production,” Russian Review 70, no. 2 (April 2011): 224. The Special Section of the St. Petersburg Court interpreted this picture as “insolent disrespect of Supreme Authority” (the czar), and also found Shebuev (1874–1937) guilty of additional crimes on the basis of other cartoons and texts published in the first issue of his satirical magazine, sentencing him to one year of imprisonment. See “Prigovor po delu Pulemeta,” in Russkaia satira pervoi revolutsii 1905–1906, ed. Vladimir Botsianovskii and Erikh Gollerbakh (Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo, 1925), 205–8.
89 Mathew, Greetings from the Barricades, 264.
90 Only three issues of the magazine were released, before it was closed by censors. The publication continued under a different title Adskaya pochta (Devil’s post) but also ceased after three issues were published.
91 This image is featured in a New York Times article “Russian Struggle for Liberty Told in Cartoon.”
92 Mathew, Greetings from the Barricades, 238.
93 Trud, no. 6 (December 1906), 1, cited in Mathew, Greetings from the Barricades, 328.
94 Laura Engelstein, Moscow, 1905: Working-Class Organizations and Political Conflict (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982), 220.
95 “Russian Cartoons Show: Scenes of the Revolution on Exhibition at Columbia.”
96 Morley, “Major Russian Collections in American Libraries,” 265.
97 Yet another development partially overseen by George L. Rives, who was a member of the New York Rapid Transit Commission for six years beginning in 1896, and thus dealing with the novel and intricate legal questions, which arose during the building of the first subway lines. See HBF of George L. Rives.
98 James Hulme Canfield, “Report of the Librarian for the Academic Year Ending June 30, 1906,” Annual Reports of the President and Treasurer to the Trustees (New York: Columbia University. Office of the President, 1906), 237.
99 F. S. Rodkey, “Unfreezing Research Materials in the United States: Russian Historical Sources as Illustrative Example,” The Journal of Modern History 20, no. 3 (September 1948): 227. Rodkey describes the holdings at Columbia as centered upon Russia’s economic development and the history of the land question before 1917.
100 Canfield taught history and English language and literature at the University of Kansas, in Lawrence in 1878 and again between 1880–1891.
101 HBF of Francis Sedgwick Bangs.