The Beginnings of the Zheng He Voyages: Nanjing and the Indian Ocean World, 1405–1433

Abstract

Previous studies on the voyages of Zheng He during the 1405–33 period have largely focused on the aims and objectives of the journeys, the countries and regions visited and the impact and significance of the voyages for both China and other countries. So far there has been no detailed study on the role played by Nanjing in Zheng He’s journeys to the “Western Ocean” (Indian Ocean). This essay discusses a variety of services provided by Nanjing for the early Ming maritime expeditions, such as producing all of the Treasure Ships and many of the other types of major vessels employed in the voyages; providing a large number of personnel, food, and material needed for the year-long expeditions; preparing gifts to be presented to the rulers of foreign countries and goods to be traded with the locals; rendering spiritual comfort and support to the staff members of the fleet, and serving as a center for receiving and accommodating overseas emissaries. The essay argues that Nanjing, first as the primary capital (1368–1420) and later as the secondary capital (1420–1644) of Ming China, was not only the starting point of the Zheng He voyages, but also an indispensable bridge in Ming China’s connection with the Indian Ocean world.

Keywords:

• Nanjing
• Zheng He Voyages
• Indian Ocean

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Chen Zhongping, James Flath, Lai Ming Chiu, Geoff Read, and the two anonymous reviewers for their comments on the drafts of this essay.

Notes

1 Shi Ping, “Bainian Zheng He yanjiu de tansuo,” 913; He Xiaorong, “Fojiao yihuo Yisilanjiao? Yelun Zheng He de zongjiao xinyang,” 75.

2 For more on the Yongle emperor’s decision to move the primary capital to Beijing, see Edward Farmer, Early Ming Government, 114–32.

3 For more on the administrative roles of Nanjing during the 1420–1644 period, see Jun Fang, China’s Second Capital, 44–141.

4 A late Ming historical novel contains the measurement and numbers of the five types of ships employed in the Zheng He voyages: 36 treasure ships of 44 × 18 zhang; 180 battle ships of 18 × 6.8 zhang; 300 transport ships of 24 × 9.4 zhang; 700 horse ships of 37 × 15 zhang; and 240 grain ships of 28 × 12 zhang. See Luo Maodeng, Xiyang ji, 104. The historicity of the book’s record is disputed among scholars.

5 Zheng Hesheng and Zheng Yijun believe that some of the treasure ships were built by Fujian shipyards, but the sources they cite, the Veritable Record of the Ming Dynasty (Ming shilu) and the Qinglong-era Gazetteer of the Changle County (Changle xianzhi), do not specify the ocean-going ships Fujian built for the Zheng He fleet as treasure ships. See Zheng and Zheng, “Lüelun Zheng He xia Xiyang de chuan,” 634.

6 Fan Jingwen, Nanshu zhi, 3213.

7 Fei Xin, Xingcha shenglan, 1–2; Lu Rong, Shuyuan zaji, 26–7.

8 Liu Yijie, “Mingdai Nanjing zaochuan chang tanwei,” 47.

9 Zhang Tingyu, Mingshi, 7766–7; Wan Ming ed., Ming chaoben Yingya shenglan jiaozhu, 5.

10 Wan Ming, Ming chaoben Yingya shenglan jiaozhu, 5.

11 Zheng Hesheng and Zheng Yijun, “Lüelun Zheng He xia Xiyang de chuan,” 636.

12 Nanjing bowuguan, Baochuanchang yizhi: Nanjing Ming Baochuanchang Liuzuotang kaogu baogao, 6–48.

13 Fan Jingwen, Nanshu zhi, 3213. For more on Fan, see Robin Yates, “Saving the Ming through the Written Text,” 5–20.

14 Li Zhaoxiang, Longjiang chuanchang zhi, 3.37–38.

15 Luo Maodeng, Xiyang ji, 115. Gregory Scott argues that Luo’s novel “skillfully blends history and fiction to reflect concerns of the late Ming era.” See “Daydreaming Dynasty: Sanbao’s Journey in the Western Seas and ‘Present-Dynasty’ Fiction of the Ming,” 10.

16 Gu Qiyuan, Kezuo zhuiyu, 31.

17 For more on the Zheng He hanghai tu, see Xiang Da, ed., Zheng He hanghaitu, 1961.

18 Li Zhaoxiang, Longjiang chuanchang zhi, 3.38; Zheng Hesheng and Zheng Yijun, Zheng He xia Xiyang ziliao huibian, 88.

19 For a detailed analysis of the plausibility of the large-sized treasure ships of the Zheng He fleet, see Sally Church, “Investigating Zheng He’s Ships,” 197–205; “Zheng He,” 1–43; “The Colossal Ships of Zheng He,” 155–76; André Wegener Sleeswyk, “The Liao and the Displacement of Ships in the Ming Navy,” 3–13.

20 Yang You, “Zheng He xia Xiyang suoyong chuanbo,” 662–3.

21 Wu Zhimu, Mengliang lu, 111.

22 Batuta, The Travels of Ibn Batuta, 172.

23 Zhang Tingyu, Mingshi, 7766–7.

24 Fei Xin, Xingcha shenglan, 1–2; Lu Rong, Shuyuan zaji, 26–7.

25 Wan Ming, Ming chaoben Yingya shenglan jiaozhu, 5.

26 Zhu Yunming, Qianwen ji, 75.

27 Mingshi lu: Taizong, 75.4a; Xi, “Daxing Zheng He baochuan de cunzai jiqi chuxian niandai fenxi,” 56–8.

28 For example, Zheng Hesheng and Zheng Yijun, “Lüelun Zheng He xia Xiyang de chuan,” 634.

29 Liu Yijie, “Mingdai Nanjing zaochuanchang tanwei,” 31–54.

30 Wang Shiduo, Shang Jiang liangxian zhi, 3.5b; Zhou Zhibin, “Lüelun Jiangsu dui Zheng He xia Xiyang de gongxian,” 804–10. The record of “tens of millions of saplings” (shu qianwan zhu 數千萬株) were planted in the early Hongwu reign seems incredibly huge.

31 Luo Maodeng, Xiyang ji, 104; Gabriele Foccarli, The Chinese Travellers of the Ming Period, 33–4.

32 On the history of the horse ships, see Liu Yijie, “Mingdai Nanjing zaochaunchang tanwei,” 40–2; Li Longqian, “Mingdai Nanjing Ma Kuai chuan kaoshi,” 202–10.

33 On the history of the rapid ships (battle ships), see Liu Yijie, “Mingdai Nanjing zaochuanchang tanwei,” 43–5; Li Longqian, “Mingdai Nanjing Ma Kuai chuan kaoshi,” 211–20.

34 The number of grains ships recorded in Luo Maodeng’s Xiyang ji (p. 104) is 240.

35 Liu Yijie, “Mingdai Nanjing zaochuanchang tanwei,” 41–3.

36 Liu Yijie believes the two shipyards were in fact the shipyards owned by the Jianghuai 江淮Guard and Jichuan 濟川 Guard under the Nanjing military establishment. See his “Mingdai Nanjing zaochuanchang tanwei,” 43.

37 Ni Dong, Chuanzheng xinshu, 1.27a, 4.8a. There was another shipyard in Nanjing, the Yellow Shipyard, which was located in western Nanjing and specialized in the building of yellow ships, vessels enlisted to transport articles of local tribute for the consumption of the imperial house. Since the yellow ships were not for the military use, the shipyard was placed under the Nanjing Ministry of Works.

38 Ouyang Qu’s preface to Li Zhaoxiang, Longjiang chuanchang zhi.

39 Louise Levathes mistakenly regards the Longjiang shipyards as the producer of the treasure ships and that the shipyards were the sole shipbuilder in Nanjing. See When China Ruled the Sea, 79–81. Li Longqian also makes the incorrect claims that the horse ships and fast ships were produced in Longjiang. Li, “Mingdai Nanjing Ma Kuai chuan kaoshi,” 202–25.

40 Gong Zhen, Xiyang fanguo zhi, 10.

41 Xi Longfei, “Baochuan de cunzai jiqi chuxian de niandai de tanxi,” 57–8; Ye Xian’en, “Mingdai Guangdong de zaochuanye,” 78–84; Lin Shimin, Ningbo zaochuanshi, 151–69.

42 For more on the contribution made by the Fujian shipbuilders to the Zheng He expeditions, see Fu Lang, “Fujian yu Zheng He xi Xiyang de chuanzhi,” 161–8; Cao Lin, “Zheng He sanxia Xiyang chuanbo de jianzao yu jianyan,” 95–6.

43 Zhao Ken and Zhao Jianqun, “Mingdai Fuzhou zaochuanye kaolüe,” 148; Xiao Zhongsheng and Xiao Xin, “Zheng He Wang Jinghong yu Mingdai Fuzhou zaochuanye,” 30–3.

44 Mingshilu: Taizong, 20a.2b. For more on Fujian’s other contributions to the Zheng He voyages, see Wu Hongli, “Zheng He xia Xiyang yu Fujian,” 113–6; Wang Jing and Li Shun, “Zheng He xia Xiyang yu Fujian,” 3–6; Weng Guozhen, “Zheng He xia Xiyang yu Fujian,” 73–5; Lai Zhengwei, “Mingdai Fujian zaochuan hanghai jishu xiang haiwai chuanbo shulüe,” 28–31; Lin Jingzhi and Zhang Lianying, “Zheng He xia Xiyang yu Fujian huaqiao,” 75–85; Zhang Guilin, “Zheng He xia Xiyang yu Fujian lishi wenhua de guanxi,” 95–100.

45 There were some 27,780 persons in the first journey, 27,000 in the second, 27,000 or 30,000 in the third, and 27,550 in the last voyage. See Zhang Tingyu, Mingshi, 7766–7; Zha Jizuo, Zuiwei lu, 2604; Fei Xin, Xingcha shenglan, 1–4; Zhu Yunming, Qianwen ji, 75.

46 For the role of Nanjing eunuch grand commandants, see Jun Fang, “The Military Triumvirate in the Southern Capital of the Ming Dynasty,” 7–21; Fang Jun, “Mingdai Nanjing de neiwai shoubei,” 107–12.

47 Fan Jinmin and Xia Weizhong, “Mingdai zhongyang zhiran jigou kaoshu,” 44–50. For more on the Nanjing eunuch departments, see Jun Fang, China’s Second Capital, 52–6.

48 Mingshilu: Taizong, 270.1b.

49 For more on the Ming presentation of gifts to foreign countries in the Hongwu-Yongle period, see Zheng Hesheng and Zheng Yijun, eds., Zheng He xia Xiyang ziliao huibian, 986–9. For more on the relations between China and Malacca in the early Yongle reign, see Wang Gungwu, “The Opening of Relations between China and Malacca, 1403–1405,” 1–25.

50 Liu Qiu, Liangxi wenji, 246.

51 Chao Zhongche, Mingchao duiwai jiaoliu, 130–5.

52 Sang Yue, “Nandu fu,” in Huang Zongxi, Ming wenhai, 1.1a–34b.

53 Gu Qiyuan, Kezuo zhuiyu, 26. The English translation of the passage is taken from Si-yen Fei’s book with a slight modification. See Negotiating Urban Space: Urbanization and Late Ming Nanjing, 259.

54 Chen Jian, Huang Ming tongji, 435; Wang Xiong, “Mingchao de Siyiguan jiqi yizhisheng de peiyang,” 64–5.

55 Liu Yingsheng, “Bosiyu zai Dongya de huangjin nianyue de kaiqi yu zhongjie,” 112. Edward Dreyer thinks that the Arabic was “the lingua franca of seafarers from South China to the African coast.” See Dreyer, Zheng He, 7.

56 P.L. Prematilleke, “Chinese Ceramics Discovered in Sri Lanka,” 237; K.A. Nilakanta, Foreign Notices of South Asia, 38–9.

57 On Ma Huan and his book, see J.J.L. Duyvendak, Ma Huan Re-examined; Steward Gordon, “Treasure and Treaty,” 117–35; Zhang Jian, “Ma Huan de zhushu yu Yingya shenglan de diwei,” 144–9; Wan Ming, Ming chaoben Yingya shenglan jiaozhu, 1–28.

58 Wang Hongbin’s article on Li Shizhen’s service at the Medical Academy sheds some light on the medical agency. See “Li Shizhen Taiyiyuan renzhi kao,” 14–17.

59 More than 70 guard units were stationed in Beijing after it became the primary capital in 1420. Zhang Tingyu, Mingshi, 1860–61.

60 For more on the military troops in Nanjing after 1420, see Jun Fang, China’s Second Capital, 121–41.

61 Xu Gongsheng, “Zaitan Zheng He xia Xiyang yu Weisuo wuzhi xuanbu,” 31–47; Michael Szonyi, The Art of Being Governed, 30–1 & 88.

62 Yan Congjian, Shuyu zhouzi lu, 306; Han Pinzheng, “Zheng He yu Nanjing Jingjuesi,” 41. For more on the year of the erection of the Jinghai Temple, See Yang Bo, “Jinghaisi shijian niandai xiaokao,” 37–8.

63 The Lulong Mountain is the other name of the Lion Mountain in Nanjing.

64 Ge Yinliang, Jinling fancha zhi, 18.1a–3a.

65 Gu Qiyuan, Kezuo zhuiyu, 31.

66 For more on Hong Bao and his tomb, see Wang Zhigao, “Hong Bao shengping shiji ji fensi chukao,” 74–84; Nanjing bowuguan and Jiangning bowuguan, “Nanjing shi Zutangshan Mingdai Hong Bao mu,” 41–52.

67 On the origin and promotion of Tianfei (Tianhou 天后), the patron goddess of Chinese seafarers, see James Watson, “Standardizing the Gods,” 292–324.

68 Ming shilu: Taizong, 78.1b.

69 The Tianfei Temple was burned down in the wars in the late Qing, but the stele fortunately survived the blaze. The tablet, made of marble, is 5.48 meters high, 1.5 meters wide, and 0.5 meter thick. Its inscription contains a total of 699 characters. See Kong Yang, “Lun Mingchu Tianfei Xinyang zai Nanjing de jiangou,” 25–34; Yang Xinhua, “Mingdu Nanjing shi Zheng He xia Xiyang de ceyuandi,” 814–5.

70 The Chinese view of Zheng He’s visits to the Indian Ocean as voyages of peace and friendship is not readily shared by scholars in the West. Geoff Wade argues that the “voyages to the Western Ocean” were “simply an element of the southern expansion by the Yong-le emperor” and were “aggressive attempts to achieve a pax Ming in the Asian maritime realm.” For his argument, see “Zheng He Voyages: A Reassessment,” 37–58.

71 Hu Guang, “Boni guo gongshunwang mubei,” 630. Johannes Kurz translates “wangli” (princely funeral) as “state funeral.” See “Two Early Ming Texts on Borneo,” 60. For more on the Brunei king’s visit to China, see Liu Xinsheng, Zhongguo yu Wenlai guanxi shiliao huibian, 150–83; Yang Xinhua and Yang Jianhua, Boni guowang mu tanyuan, 39–47.

72 For his visit and tomb in China, see Zhang Tingyu, et al, Mingshi, 8422–4; Feng Xingsheng, “Sulu guowang fang Ming de jige wenti,” 153–5; Zhou Zilun and Ou Yumei, “Ming Qing shiqi Sulu guo chaogong shihua,” 46–51.

73 For more on the Chinese record of Gumalalang and the sultan’s tomb in China, see Zhang Tingyu, Mingshi, 8379; Xu Zuosheng, “Nan Yang guguo Gumalalang kanfang,” 55–9.

74 Li Dongyang, Da Ming huidian, juan 145 on Huitongguan; Wang Jing, “Ming Huitongguan lunkao,” 53–62. On the English translation of the two early Ming texts on Borneo and its king’s visit to China, see Johannes Kurz, “Two Early Ming Texts on Borneo,” 60–72.

75 Li Deng, Shangyuan xianzhi, 204.

76 Gu Qiyuan, Kezuo zhuiyu, 202.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jun Fang

Jun Fang 方駿 is Professor of History at Huron University and Adjunct Research Professor of History at the University of Western Ontario. He is the author of China’s Second Capital—Nanjing under the Ming and the co-translator of the Reminiscences of the Plum-Shaded Convent 影梅庵憶語 by Mao Xiang 冒襄 (1611–1693).