Between Ethics [Education] and Practices

ABSTRACT

Involvement of senior commanders in bribery and sex scandals and deviations from ethical values and norms in operational units raises questions regarding the effectiveness of the learning mechanisms of ethics education in military colleges. The digression of those who are supposed to be role models from the professional and ethical point of view led to a series of studies on the subject. The review reveals that despite the establishment of an educational framework, there is still a lack of a clear strategy for the management of ethics education. The studies are mainly based on memorization and compliance with rules, and the methods do not properly develop critical thinking, nor do they impart applied knowledge on how to design an ethical organizational culture. The existing evaluation processes do not measure the effectiveness of the ethical programs on changing the ethical climate in the units. Addressing the gap between what is declared and what is done in practice requires a paradigm shift in ethics education and the initiation of an extensive strategic move to examine basic assumptions, goals and learning mechanisms. An outline for operative steps presented at the end of the article may help to lead the change.

KEYWORDS:

• Ethics education
• learning mechanisms
• intellectualism
• ethical culture
• moral thinking

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. Paul Robinson,“Introduction”, in Ethics Education in the Military, edited by Nigel de Lee and Paul Robinson (London: Routledge, 2017), 1-17.

2. Nigel De Lee and Paul Robinson, Ethics Education in the Military (London: Routledge,2017); Christopher Luedtke and Christopher Miller, “Preparing Leaders of Character for Complex Conflict”, in Emerging Military Technologies, eds. Bernard Koch and Richard Schoonhoven (Nederland: Nijhoff Brill, 2022), 221–57.‏

3. Asa Kasher, Military Ethics (Etika Tzva’it). (Tel Aviv: IDF HQ/Education Officer, Galei Tzahal [army radio station] and Ministry of Defense,1996) (H); Asa Kasher, “Teaching and training military ethics: An Israeli experience”, in Ethics Education in the Military, eds. Nigel de Lee and Paul Robinson (London: Routledge 2017) 133-146; Asa Kasher, Israeli Ethics, (Etika Israelit) (Ben Shemen :Keter Book,2022) (H); Tzippi Gushpantz, “Kishon Divers Affair – Factors and Processes Shaping the Navy’s Organizational Culture and Influencing the Ethical Norms and their Implementation”, (PhD diss., Tel Aviv University, Israel, 2013).

4. For well-known cases see: Brett Weigle & Charles D. Allen,“Keeping David from Bathsheba: The Four-Star General’s Staff as Nathan”, Journal of Military Ethics 16, no.1-2 (2017): 95-113; Brian M. Michaelson, “Character Development of U.S Army Leaders, The Laissez-Faire Approach”, Military Review 93, no. 5 (2013): 30-40. Michaelson expose survey data on how much toxic leadership exists in the Army, the survey data are not encouraging. The report documents that “not only is toxic leadership prevalent, but the majority of leaders considered it a problem”. Ibid.,34;Encyclopedia DOD Department of Defense; Hugo Asencio, Theodore Byrne & Edwin Mujkic, “Ethics Training for U.S. Military Leaders: Challenging the Conventional Approach” Public Integrity 19, no. 5 (2016): 416; See also: the scandals uncovered within the US military on the military.com website.; U.S. Army,(n.d.). Sexual Harassment/Assault Response & Prevention. Retrieved from sexualassault.army.mil: http://www.sexualassault.army.mil/index.aspx; See Charles D. Allen, “Ethics and army leadership: Climate Matters”, Parameters 45, no.1 (2015): 68-83: “To document the nature and scope of the problem throughout the uniformed and civilian ranks, the Department of Defense published its Encyclopedia of Ethical Failures”, quotation70. Deviation in operations units – steering toward instances of abuse, rape and looting that occurred in operations units in Afghanistan and Iraq such as the 2014 Abu Ghraib scandal.

5. Martin L. Cook, “Professional military ethics across the career spectrum” in Issues in Military Ethics: To Support and Defend the Constitution (NY: SUNY Press, 2013),‏ quotation, 87.

6. Don Snider, “Strategic Insights: Whiskey over Books, Again? Anti-Intellectualism and the Future Effectiveness of Army 2025”, Parameters 45, no.4(2016):39-51, quotation: 49.

7. Walter E. Carter, “Ethics in the US Navy”, In Routledge Handbook of Military Ethics. (London: Routledge,2015)107-112; Jennifer G. H. Cox, “Proposing a New Strategy for Army Ethics Training”, Military Law Review 224, no.2(2016): 541-589; David L. Stanfield, “Breaking Bad: The Efficacy of Ethics Education in Air Force Officers”, Master diss., (Air University Maxwell, AL.2017); Michelson, (no. 4); Asencio et al., (n4)); Edwin R. Micewski,“Conveying ideas and values in education! Challenges in teaching military ethics” in Didactics of Military Ethics, eds. T. R. Elssner, R. Janke & A. C. Oesterle (Leiden, ND: Brill Nijhoff,2016), 173-177; Weigle & Allen (no4); Allen (n4); Major, A. Eduard, Ethics education of military leaders, Military Review 94,2(2014):55-60; Joe Doty and Walter Sowden, “Competency vs. character? It must be both”, Military Review, November-December (2009):69-77; Florian Emonet, The importance of ethics education in military training, NCO Journal 27, 11(2018): 1-6; Behen (no4); Raj Agrawala, Kenneth William and B. J. Miller,An Assessment of Student Moral Development at the National Defense University: Implications for Ethics Education and Moral Development for Senior Government and Military Leaders, Journal of Military Ethic19, no.4 (2020):312-330; Don M. Snider, “The moral corrosion within our military professions”, Strategic Studies Institute 27, (2012); Peter Olsthoorn, “Situations and dispositions: How to rescue the military virtues from social psychology, Journal of Military Ethics16, 1-2(2017):78-93; Yoon G. Dunham,“Intellectualism among US military officers at the US army command and general staff officers’ course” Master diss., (Army Command and General Staff College: Fort Leavenworth United States,2020). See also in. Beth A. Behen, “The stakes are high: Ethics education at U.S. war colleges”. Master’s diss., (U.S. Air Force Air War College: Montgomery, AL,2016) in note 9: “In response to deviations, the U.S Department of Defense decided to examine all the ethics training, highlighting what was being done in the training of senior officers, and to appoint Admiral Klein as a special advisor on military professionalism, leadership and ethics.”

8. De Lee & Robinson (n1).

9. Robinson (n1); Luedtke &Miller (n2).

10. Kasher (n3).‏.

11. Stephan Deakin, “Education in an Ethos at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst”, In Ethics Education in Military, eds. Nigel De Lee &Paul Robinson (London: Routledge,2017), 15-30; Mileham Patrick,“Teaching Military Ethics in the British Armed Forces”, in Ethics Education in Military, eds. Nigel De Lee & Paul Robinson (London: Routledge,2017), 43-56.

12. De Lee and Robinson (n1).

13. Martin L. Cook, “Ethics Education, Ethics raining and Character Development: Who ‘Owns’ Ethics in the US Air Force Academy”, in Ethics Education in the Military,eds. Nigel de Lee and Paul Robinson (London: Routledge,2017), 57-66; Martin L. Cook, “Military ethics and character development, in Routledge Handbook of Military Ethics, ed George Lucas (London: Routledge,2015), 123-132; Robinson(n2)5.

14. De Lee Nigel and Robinson (n2).

15. Stefhan Werdelis,“‘Ethical education and character development in the armed forces of federal republic of Germany”, in Ethics Education in the Military, eds. Nigel De Lee & Paul Robinson (London: Routledge, 2017), 103-108.

16. Desjardins Yvon, “Canada’s Defense Ethics Program and Training”, in Ethics Education in Military,eds. Nigel De Lee & Paul Robinson (London: Routledge,2017), 67-78.

17. Henri Hude, “Reshaping the ethical training of future French commissioned officers” in Ethics Education in the Military, eds. Nigel De Lee & Paul Robinson (London: Routledge, 2017), 113.

18. Olsthoorn Peter, “The ethics curriculum at the Nederland Defense Academy and some problems with its theoretical underpinnings”, in Ethics Education in the Military, eds. Nigel De Lee & Paul Robinson (London: Routledge, 2017), 119-132.

19. Asenico (n4):423;Behen(n7)13.

20. Martin. L. Cook, Moral reasoning as a strategic leader competency, US Army War College Center for Strategic Leadership Studies, (2005) Retrieved Nov, 15, 2021: Kasher,2017(n3); Don Carrick “The Future of Ethics Education in the Military: A Comparative Analysis”, in Ethics Education in the Military, eds. Nigel De Lee & Paul Robinson (London: Routledge, 2017), 187-198; Joseph Miller, “Squaring the Circle: Teaching Philosophical Ethics in the Military”, Journal of Military Ethic 3, no.3 (2004): 199-215;Mikianski(n7); Cook(n12). Regarding organizational contexts, see also: Carter(n7);Allen (n4)Stanfield(n7).

21. Cook(n5); Emonet (n7); Kasher,2017(n3); Agrawal(n7) 327. See also: Behen (n7)7: “The report by Secretary of Defense published in 2012 indicated that ethics training needed to start earlier in an officer’s career and be reinforced more often over the course of that career”.

22. Cook(n5); Miller(n20); Mikianski(n7).

23. B.A and M.A. studies take place during officer training and advancement up the command hierarchy. See, for example, Desjardins (n16 72(;Cook (n12)64; Kasher2017 (n3) 143.

24. See (n7). Most of the studies were done on military colleges in the US.

25. Carter (n7)109,111; Asencioet al., (n4) 421; Cox(n7)555; Stanfield (n7)8; Mikianski (n7) 173,177.

26. Miller (n20); Cook (n12); Kasher (n3).

27. Cox (n7)552; Asencio (n4) 420; Carter(n7)110.

28. Carter(n7)107.

29. Agrawal (n7)327; Agrawal Raj, “Religiosity and its Correlation with the Neo-Kohlbergian Moral Development Schemas.” PhD Diss., (Northcentral University, Scottsdale, 2015) “The majority of US Air Force officers on their way to senior ranks aligned with the maintaining norms schema, defining ethical practice as maintaining the status quo and perceiving those who threaten the status quo as unethical”. Cited in Agrawal (n7):318.

30. Cook (n5) 91; Carter (n7) 109; Allen(n4)80; Asencio et al.,(n4)421. For the issue of deviations of individuals, see: Lyne Paine, “Managing for Organizational Integrity”,Harvard Business Review 72, no.2 (1994): 106-117.

31. Carter (n7)110; Doty and Snowden (n7)72.

32. Kasher 1996(n3)214, 230; See also Cook(n5) 92; Major(n7)59.

33. Patricia H. Werhane. Moral Imagination and Management Decision Making, (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1999)11. Cited in Agrawal et al., (n7): 326. Regarding moral imagination see Palazzo, Guido, Franciska Krings, and Ulrich Hoffrage, “Ethical blindness”, Journal of Business Ethics 109, no.3 (2012): 323-338.

34. Carter (n7) 110-111; Asencio (n4) 420.

35. Snider (n6).

36. Ibid.; Dunham(n7).

37. Don M. Snider, “Will Army 2025 be a Military Profession?”, Parameters 45, no.4 (2015):39-54; Everett S. Spain, J. D. Mohundro & Bernard B. Banks, “Intellectual Capital: A Case for Cultural Change,” Parameters 45, no. 2 (2015):77-94. The promotion of officers who excelled in intellectualism was blocked.

38. Ibid, 51; Don M. Snider, “The Moral Corrosion within our Military Professions, accessed 1 December.2021, available at: http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/index.cfm/articles//TheMoral-Corrosion-within-Our-MilitaryProfessions/2012/11/27; Internet http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/index.cfm/articles; Michaelzon (n)28;Doty &Snowden(n7)70,72; Asencio (n4) 416; Cook (n5) 13.

39. Allen,(n7) 80; Asencio(n4)416,423;Olsthoorn(n7)88;Carter(n7) 109;Stanfield(n7) 16.

40. Linda K. Treviño, Niki A. Den Nieuwenboer and Jennifer J. Kish-Gephart “(Un)ethical Behavior in Organizations”.2014. Annual Review of Psychology 65,no.1 (2014) : 635-660; ‏ ‏Mayer M. David, Aquino Karl, Greenbaum L. Rebecca & Kuenzi, Maribeth“Who displays ethical leadership, and why does it matter? An examination of antecedents and consequences of ethical leadership”, Academy of Management Journal 55, no.1 (2012)151-171; Maribeth Kuenzi, David M. Mayer, and Rebecca L. Greenbaum, “Creating an ethical organizational environment: The relationship between ethical leadership, ethical organizational climate, and unethical behavior”, Personal Psychology 73,(2020):43-71; David De Cremer and Celia Moore, “Toward a better understanding of behavioral ethics in the workplace”, Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior7,(2020): 369-393;‏ Linda K. Treviño, “Ethical Decision Making in Organizations: A Person- Situation Interactionist Model”, Academy of Management Review 11, no.3 (1986): 601-617. Psychology.

41. Kuenzi et al. (n40); Edgar H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership. (4th ed.) (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass,2010); Michael E. Brown and Trevino, Linda K. Trevino, “Do role models matter? An investigation of role modeling as an antecedent of perceived ethical leadership”, Journal of Business Ethics 122, 4(2014): 587-598; Celia Moore, David Mayer, M., Flora., F. Chiang, F, Crossley, Craig, Matthew, J. Karlesky, & Birtch, A. Tomas, “Leaders matter morally: The role of ethical leadership in shaping employee moral cognition and misconduct”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 104,1 (2019) 123-145;‏ Gushpantz, Tzippi, “Senior officers in the Kishon diving affair: Between ethics and acts,” Journal of Military Ethics 16, 1-2 (2017):38-55.

42. Fred O. Walumbwa, Chad A. Hartnell and Everlyne Misati, “Does ethical leadership enhance group learning behavior? Examining the mediating influence of group ethical conduct, justice climate, and peer justice”, Journal of Business Research 72,‏ (2017): 14-23; Gushpantz Tzippi, Diving in Murky Waters – the Kishon affair as an organizational phenomenon (Haifa: Pardes Publication,2021)(H); Gushpantz (n41).

43. Schein, (n41); Gushpantz (n41) (n42).

44. Weick E. Karl,“The social psychology of organizing”. Management, 18(2), (2015)189-193; Dov Zohar &;, Orly Tenne-Gazit, “Transformational leadership and group interaction as climate antecedents: A social network analysis”, Journal of Applied Psychology93,no.4(2008):744-757; Gushpantz Tzippi, “Special Units and Emerging Technologies: Environmental and Organizational Features and Their Influence on Ethical Considerations.in Emerging Military Technologies, eds. Bernhard Koch and Richard Schoonhoven,(Linden Niderland :BrillNijhoff, 2022)193-220:‏ Gushpantz 2021 (n40). Stanfield(n7)9; Kuenzi et al., 2020(n40) 45.

45. Gil Luria, “Climate strength – How leaders form consensus”, The Leadership Quarterly 19, 1(2008): 42-53; Zohar and Tenne-Gazit ibid;Gushpantz(n41) see also Major(n7)56.

46. Kasher1996(n3)119-121; Gshpantz (n42) 109-120 “The organizational culture and unit spirit”.

47. Kuenzi et al., 2020(n40) 45.

48. JohnM.Schaubroeck, Hannah, SeanT., Bruce J.Avolio, , Steve.W.J.Kozlowski, Lord, Robert.G.,, Linda K. Trevino, Nikolas Dimotakis and Ann. C. Peng, “Embedding ethical leadership within and across organizational levels”, Academy of Management Journal 55, 5 (2012) : 1053-1078; Brown and Trevino(n41); Kuenzi et al.,(n40); Gushpantz (n41).

49. Sezer, Ovul, Gino, Francesca; Bazerman, Max H,“Ethical blind spots: Explaining unintentional unethical behavior”, Current Opinion in Psychology 6, (2015):77-81; Irving L Janis, and Leon Mann, Decision making: A psychological analysis of conflict, choice, and commitment (NY: Free Press, 1977).

50. Blake E Ashforth,, and Vikas Anand, “The normalization of corruption in organizations”, Research in Organizational Behavior 25(2003): 1-52; Gushpantz (n42); Gushpantz (n41); David M., Mayer, Maribeth, K. Kuenzi, and Rebecca L. Greenbaum, “Examining the link between ethical leadership and employee misconduct: The mediating role of ethical climate”, Journal of Business Ethics 95, 1,(2010):7-16;Weick(n44). See also: Asencio (n4) 418, influence immoral behavior.

51. Carter(n7) 110; Allen(n7) 77-81; Stanfield(n7)16; Major(n7); Asencio (n4)421,426.

52. Stanfield (n7)12,14; Asencio (n4) 416, 427; Carter (n7); Allen(n7)8.

53. Asencio(n4)423; Behen (n7)12-13.

54. Behen ibid; Stanfield (n7)18; See also David Whetham .2018.“An Introduction and Review: The King’s College London Centre for Military Ethics” Journal of Military Ethics 17 no. 1, 72-78.

55. Behen, Ibid; Stanfield (n7)22: “Separate approaches unique to each school.

56. Cook,2017(n5) 60; Cook & Syse, 2010:119.

57. Agrawal (n7); Snider (n37) (n38); Michelson(n40) Cox(n7); Stanfield (n7).

58. Asencio (n7)421; Cook(n12)64.

59. Agrawal (n7); Snider (n37) (n38); Michelson (n4); Kasher 2017(n3); Cook(n12).

60. Agrawal (n7)318: “Many military officers receive at least their first graduate degree through correspondence”.

61. Cook n12; Stanfield (n7) 19; Miller (n20)2 14.

62. Asencio (n4) 421 For example, in the mandatory course for “Law Orientations”, ethics occupies one hour of the one-day course.

63. Behen (n7).See also Stanfield (n7).

64. Behen (n7)13; Stanfield (n7) 18,19 Asencio (n4). See also David Whetham.“An Introduction and Review: The King’s College London Centre for Military Ethics” Journal of Military Ethics 17 no. 1 (2018): 72-78.

65. Behen (n7)15: A review of four military colleges’ programs for senior officers shows that these institutions offer between 6-9 hours on ethics as part of the leadership courses.

66. Behen Ibid; Asencio (n4)421. Regarding the level of instructors in military colleges see also (n100).

67. Miller (n20)202-204; Carrick (n20) 196.

68. Miller (n20) 213-214; Stanfield (n7)22; Cox 577–78.

69. Behen (n7) 11; Asencio (n4)421.

70. Desjardins (n16).

71. Stanfield (n7) 17, 22; Regarding the conduct of military systems in Germany and Canada, see Werdelis (n15); Desjardins (no16).

72. Stanfield (n7)18.

73. Cook, (n3) 87.

74. Patricia H. Werhane, Moral Imagination and Management Decision Making. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1999):11. Cited in Agrawal et al., 2020(n3): 326.

75. Cox(n7) 573; Asencio 421.

76. Agrawal (n7) 324: “The results of this survey suggest that ethics education at NDU is not an overall explicit element in the core curriculum, nor does it incorporate empirically validated content and instructional methods, leading to a hypothesis of no significant change in pre-test/posttest scores. See also p.319:“The results of this survey suggest that ethics education at NDU is not an overall explicit element in the core curriculum, nor does it incorporate empirically validated content and instructional methods”.

77. Jessica A. Kennedy, and Cameron Anderson, “Hierarchical Rank and Principled Dissent: How Holding Higher Rank Suppresses Objection to Unethical Practices.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 139, (2017): 30-49.Cited in Agrawal (n7)313.

78. Logan M. Steele, Tyler J. Mulhearn, Kelsey E. Medeiros, Logan L. Watts, Shane Connelly & Michael D. Mumford, “How Do We Know What Works? A Review and Critique of Current Practices in Ethics Training Evaluation”, Accountability in Research. Journal Policies and Quality Assurance 23, 6 (2016)319-350. A study that examined the impact of ethics programs in organizations between 1979 and 2016 revealed that most of them measured the participants’ satisfaction with the program, rather than the changes in their behavior or decision-making.

79. Allen (n4). See also Stanfield (n7)19: “Each school (out of 7) administers student surveys as one method of determining of determining whether desired learning outcomes were achieved”.

80. Ibid.; Agrawal, (n3)327; Cook(n5)89; Stanfield (n7)18.

81. The reference is to serious injuries in the Maglan commando unit in 2018 and the death of a soldier during a training exercise of the paratrooper commando unit in 2019. “Following the accidents in Maglan, the IDF has decided to examine the conduct in all the elite units”, Yaniv Kobovitz, Haaretz newspaper 9.8.18, (H) Hilazon Stream disaster “The commanders began by covering the fact that the body was still in the water”, Yaniv Kobovitz,Haaretz newspaper 17.11.20 (H).

82. Kasher1996 (n3) 238.

83. The IDF Spirit Israel Defense Force (n.d.) IDF Code of Ethics <https://www.idfb log.com/about - the- idf/idf- code- of- eth ics/> accessed 02. November 2020 <http://www.jewish virtual library.org/ruach- tzahal- idf- code- of- ethics> accessed 02 November 2020; Kasher,1996(n 3) 230–35.

84. Kasher,1996(n 3) 215.

85. Gushpantz (n41).

86. Kasher 1996 (n3) 188.

87. Ibid., 216.

88. Ibid.,187–90.

89. Kasher (n3) 2022. Kasher notes that erasing the rules deprives commanders of key professional insights regarding the dilemmas, Ibid. 244.

90. Ibid, 235, 236: “In 2001 a radical change was made by deleting all the rules”; “Thus the professional insights disappeared from the code of ethics”.

91. Uzi Ben-Shalom,“Trends in military education in the IDF: A case study of the Tactical Command College”, Journal of Political and Military Sociology 42, (2014):51-73; Avi Kober, “What Happened to Israeli Military Thought?”, Journal of Strategic Studies 34, 5 (2011): 707–32.

92. Kober, Ibid., 716-717.

93. The Vinograd Commission, a government inquiry commission appointed to examine the failures in the Second Lebanon War (2006). Final report 2008, pp. 397-398.

94. A Commission appointed by the Foreign Affairs and Security committee to examine all the training in the IDF, January 2007. Quotation, 12.

95. State Comptroller’s Annual Report 57A, p. 13.See Kober(n91)p.7.

96. Ibid, p. 10. Regarding the freedom of maneuver of the college commanders, see also Kasher, 2006 in his testimony before the Vinograd Commission 2006, protocol 15/11/06 p.5.

97. Ibid., See also (n95)13: “The senior training program does not get the best people as instructors”.

98. Ibid.

99. (n95)8.

100. Amira Raviv, “The concept of studying ethics in colleges, Maarachot 396, (2004) : 53-55. (H) .

101. Prof. Asa Kasher is one of the authors of the first version of the code of ethics. He lectured for many years on “military ethics” in all the various frameworks of the Inter-Service Command and Staff College and throughout the IDF, Kasher 2022 (n3)54,238.

102. Kasher, Asa, Testimony before the Vinograd Committee. Protocol 15.11.06 p. 3.

103. Kasher notes that in fact, until 2019, nothing was done to implement ethical and insight regarding the updated document that replaced the 1994 code of ethics. See Kasher (n3) 2022, 299.

104. Kasher 2022 (n3) 294: “In the five years since the code was approved by the Chief of Staff (1994), no professional process of assimilation and evaluation of results was carried out”. Ibid, 283: “In the first years after the approval of the IDF’s code of ethics, I did not see a document of an effective ethics plan, nor did I hear that such a document exists that guides the appropriate military entities”

105. Ibid, 298. Kasher notes that “there has been no organized comprehensive professional IDF implementation process […] “there was no attempt to gather and summarize data as a professional control; that there were local command initiatives but not as a result of a comprehensive responsible, professional IDF decision”

106. Ibid. Kasher notes: “the change in the code of ethics in 2001 was not based on tested data […] Until 2019, nothing was done to realize the professional, organizational and ethical insight regarding the updated document that replaced the 1994 code of ethics.

107. Ibid, 296: “No worthy implementation process was conducted in the IDF. And n p. 298: “No professional action was taken to learn lessons beyond summarizing superficial impressions”

108. Asa Kasher, in his testimony before the Vinograd Commission 2006. Protocol 15.11.2006 p.5.

109. Ibid.

110. Snider (n6).

111. Such as political-ideological controversies and the rejection by “military discourse communities” that do not identify with it. Various military, political and cultural events of the day cause the willingness to adopt ethical codes to be constantly changing and it is always necessary to justify the importance of “organizational ethics” to mediate it and make it accessible to different audiences, especially vis-à-vis agents working demonstratively to delegitimize the ethics the military is trying to preserve. See Udi Lebel, “‘Blackmailing the Army’ - ‘Military Strategic Refusal’ as Policy and Doctrine Enforcement: Israeli Warfare in Lebanon, Samaria and Gaza”, Small Wars and Insurgencies 24, 5,(2014) 297-328; Udi Lebel, “Postmodern or Conservative? Competing Security Communities over Military Doctrine – Israeli National-Religious Soldiers as Counter [Strategic] Culture Agents”, Political and Military Sociology: An Annual Review 40, (2013):23-57; Emerson, T. and Conroy, S“Have Ethical Attitudes Changed? An Intertemporal Comparison of the Ethical Perceptions of College Students in 1985 and 2001”, Journal of Business Ethics 50, 2004, ., 2016 : 167-176; Andrew Hill and Stephen Gerras, “Systems of Denial: Strategic Resistance to Military Innovation”, Naval War College Review 69, 1, (2016) :109-133. See also Snider,2015(n 5) “Will Army 2025 be a Military Profession?” Parameters 45, (no.4):39-:““an institutional culture too infused with social trends that contradict the principles of the Army Ethic…”

112. Kasher1996 (n3) 226; See also Agrawal (n7) 328.

113. Cox (n7); Gushpantz 2022 (n42) 131-136; Michaelzon (n4); Jessica Wolfendale, “What is the point of teaching ethics in the military?” in Ethics Education in the Military, eds. Nigel de Lee and Paul Robinson (London: Routledge, 2017), 175–88.

114. Desjardins, (n 15).

115. Werdelies, (n16).

116. Cook& Syase (n53).

117. Behen, (n4)13 “ethics team”.

118. Desjardins (n16).

119. Brief, Arthur P., Robert T. Buttram, and Janet M. Dukerich, “Collective corruption in the corporate world: Toward a process model,” in Groups at work. Theory and research,ed. M. E. Turner (NY: Psychology Pres,2014),485-514; Gushpantz (n41) (n44); Zohar & Tenne-Gazit (n43); Kuenzi et al., (n40).

120. Regarding paradigm changes, see Schein (n41).

121. Moshe Ya’alon, “Leadership” [Manhigut], in On Leadership, ed. Idan Asher [Al manhigut] (idf hq/Education Officer and Galei Zahal [army radio station] 2007) 7-17.Quotation,11.)H(.

122. Trevino et al. (n 39); See also Asencio (n4)425: to reward officers who have promoted ethical standards, and in this way to actively encourage the assimilation of the rules of ethics.

123. Asa Kasher, “Professional Ethics” in Introductions to Ethics Part 1,ed. Asa Kasher, (Jerusalem: Magnes Press and the Jerusalem Ethics Center, 2009), 1-19, quotation: 17. (H).

124. Chris Argyris and Donald Schön, Organizational Learning, Theory, Method and Practice (Addison‐Wesley, 1996).