UNESCO-UNDP tourism and security in Cold War Turkey and Iran

ABSTRACT

In the mid 1960s, UNESCO took on tourism development initiatives in both Turkey and Iran that were financed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The projects focused on restoration of historic zones to improve capacity for rural tourism, including concerts and festivals. These were Cold War efforts intended to sway hearts and minds in the countryside that built on earlier industrialization and concurrent militarization schemes. In Turkey, one modest 1965 initiative at Side paved the way for the South Antalya Tourism Infrastructure Project, a 1976 loan for $46.2 million from the World Bank. In Iran, $4 million resulted in the first UNESCO-UNDP tourism program of its kind to link an international tourism agenda with a country’s national development plan: a UNESCO corridor from Tabriz to Shiraz. Drawing from archives at UNESCO and the World Bank, we explore how these initial UNESCO-UNDP tourism programs offered a further buffer for the west to both Soviet and Arab spheres of influence. Through this lens, we argue that tourism development became a way that Turkey and Iran as well as UNESCO, UNDP, and the World Bank became entangled in and benefitted from Cold War security.

KEYWORDS:

• Heritage
• militarization
• NATO
• World Bank
• Antalya
• Persepolis

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank many people for their feedback and assistance as we pursued this research. Koç University generously supported travel to Paris to consult the UNESCO Archives. There Alexander Coutelle, Sang Phan, and Eng Sengsavang provided extraordinary guidance on many different components of the UNESCO Archive system. Our colleagues Nathan Citino, Tara Ingman, Morag Kersel, Lynn Meskell, Kyle Olson, Chris Roosevelt, and Elena Vorobyeva graciously provided critical feedback on earlier drafts of the paper. Our friend Ayşe Yumru, too, gave valuable contributions at the outset of the research. We are also grateful to the robust external comments from three reviewers.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 For the UNESCO archives, we visited the main headquarters in Paris. We encountered some folders which had never before been opened. Thus, our research represents the first critical assessment of these programs. The World Bank archives that we consulted are available online, yet some only recently have been declassified. In addition, we have drawn in a limited extent from the US and UK national archives.

2 The Preamble to UNESCO’s Constitution stemmed from the words of British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, who queried ‘is it not, after all, in men’s minds that wars begin?’ (Mayor, 1992, p. 19).

3 Hoffman served as chief supervisor for the US Marshall Plan (Endy 2004, p. 44). 1385th UN meeting on 14 October 1971. UNDP Archives, file S-0882-0003-10-00001. ‘No Time Like the Future’ statement by Mr. Paul G. Hoffman, Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme, at the 1385th meeting on 14 October 1971. UNDP Archives, File S-0886-0005-03-00001. This is a summary of the actions taken in 1958 under resolution 12140, when the UN General Assembly established the UN Special Fund.

4 1385th UN meeting on 14 October 1971. UNDP Archives, file S-0882-0003-10-00001 ‘No Time Like the Future’ statement by Mr. Paul G. Hoffman, Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme, at the 1385th meeting on 14 October 1971. UNDP Archives, File S-0886-0005-03-00001.

5 The Cairo Declaration of Developing Countries. Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly. 17^th Session, Agenda item 84. 4 January 1963. United Nations Archives, File S-0859-0001-03-00001.1385th UN meeting on 14 October 1971. UNDP Archives, file S-0882-0003-10-00001. ‘No Time Like the Future’ statement by Mr. Paul G. Hoffman, Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme, at the 1385th meeting on 14 October 197

6 Recommendations to promote world travel adopted as international tourism conference concludes in Rome. 6 September 1963. Press Release ECOSCO/2043. United Nations Archives, file S-0859-0001-05-00001.

7 Agreement on Tourism between the Imperial Government of Iran and the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the Government of Pakistan, 21 July 1964. UNESCO Archives, [IRAN] CLP 122 40 069 72 (55) AMS 1960–1966.

8 Decimal File 783.5, Internal Political And National Defense Affairs., Turkey, National Defense Affairs. Army, Navy And Air. (General)., February 6, 1951 - February 6, 1954. February 6, 1951 - February 6, 1954. MS Democracy in Turkey, 1950–1959: Records of the Department of State relating to Internal Affairs: Turkey, 1950–1954. National Archives (United States). Archives Unbound.

9 Decimal File 783.5, Internal Political And National Defense Affairs., Turkey, National Defense Affairs. Army, Navy And Air. (General)., February 6, 1951 - February 6, 1954. February 6, 1951 - February 6, 1954. MS Democracy in Turkey, 1950–1959: Records of the Department of State relating to Internal Affairs: Turkey, 1950–1954. National Archives (United States). Archives Unbound.

10 For annual summaries of archaeology see Anatolia Studies, and after 1955 by Machteld Mellink in the American Journal of Archaeology.

11 The Aegean zone ran from Pergamon to Didyma and then inland to include Sardis and Aphrodisias. The focus in Cappadocia was to be on Urgup.

12 Wise to Tuncel. 12 August 1965. 2 CLT 122 53 069 72 (560) AMS 1965–1967.

13 Wise to Büyükbenli. 5 August 1965. 2 CLT 122 53 069 72 (560) AMS 1965–1967. Wise to Esat Kinatli. 11 August 1965. 2 CLT 122 53 069 72 (560) AMS 1965–1967.

14 A.Vrioni to Mr. M. Adieseshia. 11 July 1966. 2 CLT 122 53 069 72 (560) AMS 1965–1967

15 Eric Ward to Myer Cohen. 3 March 1967. 2 CLT 122 53 069 72 (560) AMS 1965–1967.

16 Myer Cohen to Participating and Executing Agencies. 15 November 1967. 1967 Technical Assistance Contingency Authorization – Preservation of Cultural Heritage – Cultural Tourism – TURKEY. CLT 122 53 069 72 (560) AMS 1965–1967. See also Vildan A. Savaşır to Vasile Vlad, 4 December 1968. CLT 122 53 069 72 (560) AMS_240 1967–1968

17 Memorandum for Record. 22 August 1968. Records of President Robert S. McNamara. World Bank Archives. Folder 1771860, reference code WB IBRD/IDA 03 EXC-10-4541S. R. McNamara to R. Matheu. 29 July 1968. Records of President Robert S. McNamara. World Bank Archives. Folder 1771860, reference code WB IBRD/IDA 03 EXC-10-4541S.

18 Travel Briefings: Turkey – Travel briefs. 1974. Records of Robert S. McNamara. World Bank Group Archives. WB IBRD/IDA 03 EXC-10-4540S. Travel Briefings: Turkey - Travel briefs. 1978. Records of Robert S. McNamara. World Bank Group Archives. WB IBRD/IDA 03 EXC-10-4540S.

19 Foreign Assistance and Related Agencies Appropriations for 1975. 93rd Congress, Pp 1291–1292. Cyprus - Second Cyprus Development Bank Project: Loan 1278 - Guarantee Agreement - Conformed (English). 3 June 1976. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/579461468027245925/Cyprus-Second-Cyprus-Development-Bank-Project-Loan-1278-Guarantee-Agreement-Conformed

20 Itinerary Norway, Turkey. 6–14 April 1978. Travel Briefings: Turkey. Records of President Robert S. McNamara. World Bank Archives. Folder 1772854, reference code WB IBRD/IDA 03 EXC-10-4540S. See also the ‘Airport Statement’ that McNamara made before his departure and the strategy for the IMF.

21 Keating, Rex. ‘Mission to Iran, 21 September - 7 October 1965’. UNESCO Archives, CLP 122 40 069 72 (55) AMS 1960–1966. File reference MC/6/1617.

22 Proudlove, J. A. ‘The Influence of Town Planning Proposals on the Cultural Monuments in the Historic Cities of Tabriz, Qasvin, Isphahan and Shiraz’. UNESCO (July 1969). File reference 1568/BMS.RD/CLT. See page 6. ‘Iranian-UNESCO Agreement for the Development of Cultural Tourism’, 1968. UNESCO Archives, CLT 122 40 069 72 (55) AMS 1968. M. Vandries to Ali Vrioni, 8 May 1968. UNESCO Archives, CLT 122 40 069 72 (55) AMS 1968. File reference TAP 3-02. Papageorgiou, Alexandre. ‘Mission Report’, December 1970. UNESCO Archives, CLP 122 410 069 72 (55) AMS 1971.XI.

23 Report on the Meeting Held in Shiraz, 3 September 1971, to ‘Study the World Promotion of Festivals in Historic Sites or Monuments’. UNESCO Archives, CLP 122 410 069 72 (55) AMS 1971 XI.

24 ‘Inspection Mission in Iran, 20–25 August 1967’. UNESCO Archives, CLT 122 40 069 72 (55) AMS 1966–1967.

25 See also ‘Iranian-UNESCO Agreement for the Development of Cultural Tourism’, 1968. UNESCO Archives, CLT 122 40 069 72 (55) AMS 1968. M. Vandries to Ali Vrioni, 8 May 1968. UNESCO Archives, CLT 122 40 069 72 (55) AMS 1968. File reference TAP 3-02. Papageorgiou, Alexandre. ‘Mission Report’, December 1970. UNESCO Archives, CLP 122 410 069 72 (55) AMS 1971.XI.

26 Ibid. M. Vandries to Ali Vrioni, 8 May 1968. UNESCO Archives, CLT 122 40 069 72 (55) AMS 1968. File reference TAP 3-02.

27 A noted scholar of Iran, Smith lived for years in Tehran before his Smithsonian position. Boushehri was the third husband of Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, twin sister of the Shah.

28 Camborde, J. ‘Town Planning in Isfahan’, 2 August 1969. UNESCO Archives, CLT 122 40 069 72 (55) AMS 1968–1969. File reference No. 70222. Letter from J. A. Proudlove to Conrad Wise, 5 August 1969. UNESCO Archives, CLT 122 40 069 72 (55) AMS 1968–1969. File reference CLT.122/410/350.

29 Note from Conrad Wise to Hiroshi Daifuku, 15 September 1969. UNESCO Archives, CLT 122 40 069 72 (55) AMS 1968–1969.

30 Letter from Conrad Wise to Nessim Shallon, 14 January 1971. UNESCO Archives, CLP 122 410 069 72 (55) AMS 1971. File reference CLP.122/410/41. Letter from Martin Weaver to Conrad Wise, 6 April 1971. UNESCO Archives, CLP 122 410 069 72 (55) AMS 1971.X.

31 ‘Voyages culturels’, 22 March 1971. UNESCO Archives, CLP 122 410 069 72 (55) AMS 1971.X

32 Letter from Richard Hoggart to John Pollacco, 9 July 1971. UNESCO Archives, CLP 122 410 069 72 (55) AMS 1971.XI. File reference ADG/SHC/3.4/77.

33 The British implemented the following measures: ‘young student or hippy types will obviously have great difficulty securing Iranian visas during this period as intention seems to be to refuse entry to any possible trouble makers. Known businessmen should have no trouble with visas’. Priority Distress London of 5 October 1971. 2500 Anniversary of the Monarchy of Iran. FCO_17_1528. UK National Archives.

34 27 September 1971. Amir Khosrow Afshar to Sir Alec Douglas-Home. 2500 Anniversary of the Monarchy of Iran. FCO_17_1528. UK National Archives.

35 Restricted internal cable. Undated. 2500 Anniversary of the Monarchy of Iran. FCO_17_1528. UK National Archives.

36 Priority FCO Telno 814 of 6 October 1971. FCO 504/E 53/6. 2500 Anniversary of the Monarchy of Iran. FCO_17_1528. UK National Archives.

37 Wise, Conrad and Raoul Curiel. 17 December 1971. ‘Report of mission to Asia, 1–24 October 1971’. UNESCO Archives, CLP 122 410 069 72 (55) AMS 1971.XI. File reference CLP.122/401-405-408-410-418-531/294.

38 Telegram from Hiroshi Daifuku to Gerard Bolla, 9 September 1973. UNESCO Archives, CLP 02 2 410 069 72 (55) 1973–1979. File reference 2/410.

39 Telegram from Nordstrand, 8 November 1978. UNESCO Archives, CLP 02 2 410 069 72 (55) 1973–1979. File reference 041470. Telegram from Prattley, 7 May 1979. UNESCO Archives, [IRAN] CLP 02 2 410 069 72 (55) 1973–1979.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Christina Luke

Christina Luke (PhD, Cornell University) is Associate Professor of Archaeology and History of Art at Koç University in Istanbul. In her research, she focuses on materialism, diplomacy, heritage and archaeology. Her geographic areas of interest include the Middle East, Turkey, South East Europe and Latin America. She’s published widely on fieldwork as well as heritage. Her most recent book is Pearl in Peril: Heritage and Diplomacy in Turkey (Oxford University Press, 2019). She is the editor of the Journal of Field Archaeology.

Madison Leeson

Madison Leeson is a Ph.D. Candidate in Archaeology and History of Art with a focus on Cultural Heritage Management at Koç University in Istanbul, Turkey. Her research focuses on historical heritage management practices in the modern Middle East. She holds an MA in Heritage Management from the University of Kent (2019) and MA in Heritage Management from the Athens University of Economics and Business (2019).