![Sample our Area Studies journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5922/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Area-Studies.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
In the 1960s and 1970s, technical advisors participated in postcolonial development efforts and popular internationalism. This article addresses the politics of technical assistance as an entry point for exploring the wider shared histories of Tanzania and Canada. It shows how Canadian advisors reflected on ujamaa, race, and their relationships with Tanzanians. And it charts how lived experiences shaped their commitments abroad as well as back at home. Insisting that technical assistance is part of Tanzanian transnational history, the essay argues that Canadian advisors were divided on the politics of poverty. They held liberal and left internationalist perspectives, two overarching ways of understanding global structures that were opposed as well as internally varied. The first vision presumed that developmental work had mutualistic benefits within global capitalism. The second stressed solidarities for a building an anti-imperialist world and, in different ways, involved social democrats, New Leftists, and Black Canadian and Indigenous activists. Debates eventually led to a left-leaning attempt to rethink technical assistance.
Acknowledgements
Research supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, Canada.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Brennan, Taifa; Callaci, Street Archives; Lal, African Socialism; Ivaska, Cultured States; Fair, Reel Pleasures; Hunter, Political Thought and the Public Sphere.
2 Bjerk, Building a Peaceful Nation.
3 Ivaska, “Movement Youth”; Markle, A Motorcycle on Hell Run.
4 Prashad, The Darker Nations, xv-xvii.
5 Monson, Africa's Freedom Railway, Ch. 3; Nicholson, “Empire of Individuals”; Schneider, Government of Development, Ch. 1; Jennings, Surrogates, Chs. 5–6.
6 Brouwer, Canada's Global Villagers; Stunden Brouwer, “Irrigation Infrastructure”; Webster, “Modern Missionaries.”
7 Mills, “Popular Internationalism,” 246–8.
8 Richard Marquardt, [Untitled], 8 May 1972, 179–80, in Readings in Education (1974), Library and Archives Canada (hereafter LAC), CUSO fonds, MG28 I 323, Volume 44, File 44–20.
9 McKercher, Canada in the World, Ch. 8.
10 Webster, Fire and the Full Moon, 3, 7; Price, Orienting Canada, 306–13.
11 “Pearson Addresses Annual Meeting,” Cuso Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 1, November 1965, 2.
12 Morrison, Aid and Ebb Tide.
13 “The Arusha Declaration,” in Nyerere, Ujamaa, 13–5, 28–35. See Hyden and Mukandala, eds., Agencies in Foreign Aid.
14 Young, Canadian Development Assistance to Tanzania, 32–3.
15 See Burton, “Navigating Global Socialism.”
16 Brouwer, Canada's Global Villagers, 2, 28–32, 36.
17 Frank Bogdasavich, “Perspective,” Cuso Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 4 (November 1966), 8.
18 Interview with Richard Marquardt, 8 December 2016.
19 LeGrand, “Les réseaux missionaires,” 98–9; Hodge, Triumph of the Expert.
20 Godefroy, “The Canadian Armed Forces.”
21 Freeman, “CIDA, Wheat.”
22 Barry Fleming and Wayne Mullins, “CUSO Tanzania Country Plan 1973–74 and Situation Report,” November 1972, 1, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 56, File 56–8; “East and Central Africa, 1969–70,” i, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 102, 102–15.
23 The Pools, “Termination Report,” Zungumza, July 1978, 20, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 14, File 14–21.
24 Brennan, Taifa, 3–4, 47–84; Ivaska, Cultured States, Ch. 1; Aminzade, Race, Nation, and Citizenship; Interview with Richard Marquardt, 8 December 2016.
25 Courtney C.J. Bond, “His,” in Bond and Bond, Letters from Dar, 1, 4, 12.
26 “Albert Denov, Town Planner, Dar es Salaam,” Cuso Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 3 (May 1966): 15.
27 “Hugh Winsor,” in Bill McWhinney and Dave Godfrey, eds., Man Deserves Man: CUSO in Developing Countries (Toronto: Ryerson Press, 1968), 316–25.
28 Jack Titsworth to Lawrence Cumming and Praimie Yip, “Safari Report,” 2 August 1971, 2, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 20, File 20–2.
29 Minutes of the CUSOTAN Committee held at Iringa, 27 July 1975, 2, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 86, File 86–2.
30 “Appreciation of CUSO Tanzania Programme,” [1970], 2, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 19, File 19–26.
31 Richard Denham, Once Upon a Time – In Africa: Honeymoon Adventures of a Canadian Couple in Tanzania (s.l.: CreateSpace, 2014), 58–9, 75.
32 Lars Osberg, “CUSO Economist in Tanzania,” Cuso Bulletin (Spring 1970), 8–9.
33 Lal, African Socialism, 128.
34 Wayne Mullins to Lawrence Cumming, Safari Report No. 4, 24 August 1971, 8, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 20, File 20–2.
35 Jack Titsworth to Lawrence Cumming and Praimie Yip, “Safari Report,” 18 October 1971, 1–22, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 20, File 20–2.
36 Titsworth, “Safari Report,” 18 October 1971, 15; Interview with Barry Fleming, 12 August 2015.
37 Brennan, Taifa, 47, 70–1, 165; Elisabeth S. Bond, “Hers,” in Bond and Bond, Letters from Dar, 4, 12.
38 Ladha, Memoirs of a Muhindi.
39 Lal, “Decolonization and the Gendered Politics,” 184.
40 Shirley Baker to Bob Olivero, “Regional Report,” 11 January 1969, 4, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 17, File 17–17.
41 Rudolph Carter, “Education … Tanzania's Cultural Revolution,” CUSO Forum, No. 3 (Summer 1969), 4–5, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 103, 103–12.
42 Nyerere, “Education for Self-Reliance,” in Ujamaa, 44–46, 50–52.
43 Mbilinyi, “Contradictions,” 217–24.
44 C.M. Brown, “Education Report,” CUSO Tanzania Country Plan 1970, July 1969, 5–6, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 19, File 19–26.
45 Quoted in Brown, “Education Report,” 4b.
46 Titsworth, “Safari Report,” 18 October 1971, 20; Marsha Melnik, “Termination Report,” Zungumza, 8 August 1977, 25, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 14, File 14–23.
47 Fleming and Mullins, “CUSO Tanzania Country Plan 1973–74,” 6.
48 Cameron and Dodd, Society, Schools, and Progress, 191–2.
49 Eden Anderson, “On Secondary Education in Tanzania,” CUSO Tanzania, CUSO Tanzania Situation Report, March 1978, Appendix III, 1–2, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 14, File 14–18; “Extracts from Termination Reports,” n.d., 1–2, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 53, File 53–2.
50 Hugh Christie, “Comment on CUSO Policy,” Cuso Bulletin, Vol. 5, No. 3 (June 1967), 2–3.
51 Lal, African Socialism, Ch. 1; Brennan, “Blood Enemies,” 400.
52 Pratt, “Faith and Social Action,” 162.
53 Pratt, The Critical Phase, 4, 8, 252–5; Pratt, “Tanzania's Transition,” 203–9, 215.
54 Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.
55 Helleiner, Toward a Better World, 17–8, 22, 24–7, 34, 53–5.
56 Ivaska, Cultured States, 151–2, 159.
57 Dubinsky et. al, Introduction to New World Coming, 1–6; Palmer, Canada's 1960s.
58 Manza and McCarthy, “The Neo-Marxist Legacy,”1 56–158, 167.
59 Issa Shivji, “Tanzania: The Silent Class Struggle,” in Lionel Cliffe and John S. Saul, eds, Socialism in Tanzania, Vol. 2: An Interdisciplinary Reader (Dar es Salaam: East Africa Publishing House, 1973), 304–30.
60 Saul, Revolutionary Traveller, 10, 13, 56–7; Arrighi and Saul, Essays, 238.
61 Saul, Revolutionary Traveller, 32–7, 66.
62 Mills, The Empire Within, 95–118.
63 Brouwer, Canada's Global Villagers, 47.
64 Rawle and Gloria Frederick, “Notes on the Sixth Pan-African Congress,” CUSO Forum, Vol. 3, No. 2 (1975), 1–3, 5–6; Ricci, “Searching for Zion,” 53–5.
65 Crossen, “Another Wave of Anti-Colonialism,” 535–41; McFarlane, Brotherhood to Nationhood, 98, 132–3, 155–65, 217.
66 Sabin, “Voices from the Hydrocarbon Frontier,” 17–48.
67 “Dene Declaration,” in The Colony Within, ed. Mel Watkins (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977), 3–4.
68 Hodgson, Being Maasai, 25–8; Schneider, “The Maasai's New Clothes.”
69 Lortie et al., Tout près de l'oubli.
70 Legge et. al, “The Black Paper,” 364, 387.
71 “CUSO Brief on Southern Africa,” 1–17, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 50, 50–27.
72 Lind and Mihevic, eds., Coalitions for Justice.
73 “Membership Endorses Task and Direction of Confederation,” Newsletter (Confederation of Church and Business People) (Fall 1982), 3.
74 Grant D. Lennie, A Report on Southern Africa, November/December 1978 (Toronto: Confederation of Church and Business People, 1979), 3, 8, 11–12; Grant D. Lennie, The Mackenzie Valley – 1980 (Toronto: Confederation of Church and Business People, 1981).
75 Paul Fromm and James P. Hull, Down the Drain? A Critical Examination of Canadian Foreign Aid (Toronto: Griffin House, 1981), vii, 5, 33, 43, 154–5.
76 “Tanzania - A Nervy Beggar,” C-FAR Newsletter, No. 19 (15 September 1979), 1.
77 Morrison, Aid and Ebb Tide, 212; Brouwer, Canada's Global Villagers, 118.
78 Coleen Posluns, “Orientation Evaluation,” ECA Orientation, November 1970, 2, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 48, File 48–1. On divisions within CUSO, see Brouwer, Canada's Global Villagers, Ch. 3.
79 Minutes of the East and Central Africa Regional Meeting, 20–27 November 1972, 7, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 17, File 17–2.
80 Interview with Barry Fleming, 12 August 2015.
81 Minutes of CUSO ECSA Regional Meeting, 18–25 April 1973, 19–20, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 17, File 17–9.
82 Minutes of CUSO ECSA Regional Meeting, 24–30 April 1974, 7–8, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 17, File 17–8.
83 Richard Marquardt, “CUSO Tanzania: Some Thoughts on Strategy and Tactics,” Tanzania Situation Report, April 1975, 1–2, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 20, File 20–1.
84 Adler, “Creating ‘The NGO International,’” 307–12.
85 Minutes of CUSO ECSA Regional Meeting, 5–12 April 1976, 12, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 17, File 17–7; CUSO Tanzania, Country Plan and Budget 1977–78, Appendix C, 1–2, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 14, File 14–17.
86 Richard Marquardt, “Termination Report,” May 1977, 6–8, 14, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 14, File 14–20.
87 Minutes of CUSO ECSA Regional Meeting, 5–12 April 1976, 12.
88 Marquardt, “Termination Report,” 3.
89 Ayers, Banking on Poverty, 1–11, 76, 83–90.
90 Schneider, Government of Development, 25–7, 36.
91 Lal, African Socialism, 15, 17, 79, 216.
92 Jennings, Surrogates, 64.
93 Interview with Richard Marquardt, 8 December 2016.
94 Michael Oliver to Robin Wilson, Executive Director, CUSO, 24 April 1978, 1, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 14, File 14–18.
95 Indeed, a New Left challenge within the NDP, known as “the Waffle,” was beaten back in the early 1970s. McKay, 188–9.
96 Aminzade, Race, Nation, and Citizenship, 145–8.
97 Lance Evoy, Montreal Metro Co-ordinator, “Report on Trip to CUSO East, Central and Southern Africa Programme,” April–May 1974, 12 June 1974, 6–7, 9, LAC, MG28 I 323, Volume 86, File 86–5.