It's Time to Expand the Right to Education

ABSTRACT

International law guarantees all children free primary education. Although pre-primary and secondary education have been recognised to differing degrees as part of the right to education, there is no obligation under international human rights treaties to provide either for free. This omission is inconsistent with children's rights otherwise guaranteed under international law. Including only free primary education under the right to education, but not free pre-primary or free secondary education, may have been a recognition of countries’ limited available resources when the right was incorporated into legal treaties, beginning in 1960. However, after decades of economic growth and increasing evidence of the economic benefits to society of expanding access to education, that position deserves to be revisited. Various options exist to expand the scope of the right under international law to guarantee free pre-primary and free secondary education. A new optional protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child could provide a way toward finally realising a right to free education for all children.

KEYWORDS:

• Right to education
• children’s rights
• Committee on the Rights of the Child
• economic, social, and cultural rights
• pre-primary education
• preschool
• secondary education
• progressive realisation

Notes

1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948) UNGA Res 217 A(III) (UDHR) art 26.

2 Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990) 1577 UNTS 3 (CRC) art 29.

3 Under UNESCO's ‘International Standard Classification of Education’, pre-primary education is for children aged 3 until the start of primary education. UNESCO, International Standard Classification of Education (UNESCO 2011) 27.

4 Aaron Benavot and Phyllis Riddle, ‘The Expansion of Primary Education, 1870–1940’ (1988) 61(3) Sociology of Education 191, 200.

5 World Bank, Open Data, School enrollment, primary (% net), SE.PRM.NENR; School enrollment, secondary (% net), SE.SEC.NENR [data files].

6 UNICEF, Global database on completion rates [data file].

7 UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS), Out-of-school children [data files].

8 UNICEF, A World Ready to Learn: Prioritizing Quality Early Childhood Education (UNICEF 2019).

9 Ibid.

10 Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRCC), General Comment (GC) No 20 ‘Implementation of the rights of the child during adolescence’ (2016) CRC/C/GC/20 para 71; Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education ‘The promotion of equality of opportunity in education’ (2011) A/HRC/17/29 paras 56–58. See e.g. Wael Moussa and Carina Omoeva, ‘The Role of Secondary Education School Fees in Enrollment Behavior in Malawi’ (2016) Education Policy and Data Center; Chengfang Liu and others, ‘Development Challenges, Tuition Barriers, and High School Education in China’ (2009) 29 Asia Pacific Journal of Education 503.

11 See Human Rights Watch, ‘Education’ <www.hrw.org/topic/childrens-rights/education> accessed 23 March 2022.

12 Alison Earle and others, ‘Is Free Pre-Primary Education Associated with Increased Primary School Completion? A Global Study’ (2018) 12(13) International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy 13; Jo Becker, Campaigning for Children: Strategies for Advancing Children's Rights (2017) 133–48.

13 Human Rights Watch (HRW), The Education Deficit: Failures to Protect and Fulfill the Right to Education through Global Development Agendas (HRW 2015); see e.g. Richard Shukia, ‘Fee-free Basic Education Policy Implementation in Tanzania: A “Phenomenon” Worth Rethinking’ (2020) 27(1) Huria: Journal of the Open University of Tanzania 115; Gabriel Nizeyimana and others, ‘Hindrances to Quality of Basic Education in Rwanda’ (2021) 5(1) Rwandan Journal of Education 53.

14 See e.g. Treaty of Peace between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and Poland (signed 28 June 1919) 225 CTS 412, arts 8–9.

15 UDHR (n 1) art 26(1).

16 Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 287, arts 24 and 50.

17 Ibid. art 50.

18 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 28 July 1951, entered into force 22 April 1954) 189 UNTS 137, art 22.

19 Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons (adopted 28 September 1954, entered into force 6 June 1960) 360 UNTS 117, art 22.

20 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (adopted 21 December 1965, entered into force 21 December 1965) 660 UNTS 195, arts 5 and 7.

21 Minimum Age Convention, No. 138 (adopted 26 June 1973, entered into force 19 June 1973) 1015 UNTS 297, arts 2(3)–(4) and 7(1).

22 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions, Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (adopted 8 June 1977, entered into force 7 December 1978) 1125 UNTS 609, art 4(3)(a).

23 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13 (CEDAW) art 10(a).

24 Convention on Technical and Vocational Education (adopted 10 November 1989, entered into force 29 August 1991) 1649 UNTS 14, art 2(3).

25 Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, No 169 (adopted 27 June 1989, entered into force 5 September 1991) 1650 UNTS 383 part vi.

26 Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (adopted 18 December 1990, entered into force 1 July 2003) 2220 UNTS 3 (CRMW) art 30.

27 Convention Concerning the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor, No 182 (adopted 17 June 1999, entered into force 19 November 2000) 2133 UNTS 161 (ILO C182) art 7(2)(c).

28 Convention against Discrimination in Education (adopted 14 December 1960, entered into force 22 May 1962) 429 UNTS 93 (CADE) art 4(a).

29 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 19 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976), 993 UNTS 3 (ICESCR) art 13.

30 Ibid. art 2(1).

31 CRC (n 2) art 28(1)(a)–(d).

32 CRC (n 2) art 29.

33 Klaus Dieter Beiter, The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law (Martinus Nijhoff 2006) 19.

34 See, however, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (adopted 13 December 2006, entered into force 3 May 2008) 2515 UNTS 3 (CRPD) art 24 (‘States Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all levels’).

35 CEDAW (n 23) art 10(a).

36 CRMW (n 26) art 30.

37 CRPD (n 34) art 24(2)(a)–(b).

38 Dimitris Anastasiou and others, ‘Article 24: Education’ in Ilias Bantekas and others (eds), The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: A Commentary (OUP 2018).

39 e.g. Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union [2012] OJ C326/391, art 14. For analysis of how they are tailored to social and cultural contexts, see Laura Lundy, Karen Orr and Harry Shier, ‘Children's Education Rights: Global Perspectives’ in Martin Ruck and others (eds), Handbook of Children's Rights: Global and Multidisciplinary Perspectives (Routledge 2017) 367.

40 European Social Charter (Revised) (adopted 3 March 1996, entered into force 1 July 1999) ETS 16 art 17(2).

41 European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (adopted 5 November 1992, entered into force 1 March 1998) ETS 148, art 8(1)(a)(i)–(iv).

42 Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 17 November 1988, entered into force 16 November 1999) OAS 69 (Protocol of San Salvador) art 16; Arab Charter on Human Rights (adopted 22 May 2004, entered into force 15 March 2008) reprinted in (2005) 12 International Human Rights Reporter 893, art 41(2).

43 Protocol of San Salvador, art 13(3)(b) ('Secondary education … should be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and in particular, by the progressive introduction of free education’); African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (adopted 11 July 1990, entered into force 29 November 1999) CAB/LEG/24.9/49 (ACRWC) art 11(3)(b) (‘ …  encourage the development of secondary education … [and] progressively make it free’).

44 Sonja Grover, ‘Secondary Education as a Universal Human Right’ (2004) 16(1) Education and the Law 21; Yanghee Lee and others, ‘Early Childhood Care and Education is a Right’ in PTM Marope and Y Kaga (eds), Investing Against Evidence: The Global State of Early Childhood Care and Education (UNESCO 2015); Sandra Fredman, Georgina Donati and others, ‘The Right to Early Childhood Education as a Human Rights in International Law’ (2021) <https://ssrn.com/abstract=3964160> accessed 17 May 2022; UNESCO, Right to Pre-Primary Education: A Global Study (UNESCO 2021) 18.

45 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (adopted 23 May 1969, entered into force 27 January 1980) 1155 UNTS 331 (VCLT) art 31(1).

46 CRCC, GC No 7, ‘Implementing rights in early childhood’ (2005) CRC/C/GC/7, 30.

47 Ibid.

48 CRCC, GC No 9, ‘The rights of children with disabilities’ (2007) CRC/C/GC/9, 65; CRPD Committee, GC No 4, ‘The right to inclusive education’ (2016) CRPD/C/GC/4, para 55; UNICEF, The Right of Children with Disabilities to Education: A Rights-Based Approach To Inclusive Education (UNICEF 2012) 54–57.

49 Patrice Engle and others, ‘Strategies for Reducing Inequalities and Improving Developmental Outcomes for Young Children in Low-income and Middle-income Countries’ (2011) 378(9799) The Lancet 1339.

50 See e.g. James Heckman and Ganesh Karapakula, ‘Intergenerational and Intragenerational Externalities of the Perry Preschool Project’ (May 2019) Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Global Working Group Working Paper; Jorge Luis García and others, ‘The Lasting Effects of Early Childhood Education on Promoting the Skills and Social Mobility of Disadvantaged African Americans’ (July 2021) National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 29057.

51 Tassew Woldehanna, ‘The Effects of Early Childhood Education Attendance on Cognitive Development: Evidence from Urban Ethiopia’ (2011) 20 (1) Ethiopian Journal of Economics 113, 149.

52 ‘Report of the Working Group on a Draft Convention on the Rights of the Child’ (1989) E/CN.4/1989/48, 459.

53 CESCR, Concluding Observations (CO): United Kingdom (1994) E/C.12/1994/19, 13 and 15.

54 CRCC, GC 7, 28 and 30.

55 Ibid. 28.

56 CRCC, CO: Bahrain (2002) CRC/C/15/Add.175, 42.

57 CRCC, CO: Republic of Korea (2003) CRC/C/15/Add.197, 53(b).

58 CRCC, CO: Albania (2005) CRC/C/15/Add.249, 60–61.

59 CRCC, CO: Mexico (2006) CRC/C/MEX/CO/3, 56–57.

60 Fredman and others (n 44).

61 African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, ‘Resolution on the Right to Education in Africa’ (2016) ACHPR/Res .346(LVIII).

62 UIS, Number of years of (a) free and (b) compulsory pre-primary education guaranteed in legal frameworks [data file].

63 Grover (n 44); see e.g. Esther Duflo and others, ‘The Impact of Free Secondary Education: Experimental Evidence from Ghana’ (June 2021) National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 28937.

64 See e.g. Viola Espínola Hoffmann and Juan Pablo Claro Stuardo, ‘Estrategias de prevención de la deserción en la Educación Secundaria: perspectiva latinoamericana’ [2010] Revista de Educación 257, 260–61.

65 See e.g. Duflo and others (n 63).

66 See e.g. Melissa Alcaraz, ‘Beyond Financial Resources: The Role of Parents’ Education in Predicting Children's Educational Persistence in Mexico’ (May 2020) International Journal of Educational Development 75.

67 See e.g. Mwoya Byaro and Daniel Mpeta, ‘Secondary Education and its Effects on Child Health: Empirical Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa’ (2021) 9(2) African Journal of Economic Review 116; Russell Viner and others, ‘The Health Benefits of Secondary Education in Adolescents and Young Adults’ (2017) 3 SSM—Population Health 162.

68 CRCC, GC 20 (n 10) 58.

69 See e.g. May Rihani, ‘Keeping the Promise: Five Benefits of Girls’ Secondary Education’ (Academy for Educational Development 2006).

70 UN Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR), ‘Note verbale’ (5 October 1979) E/CN.4/1349 (Poland proposal: ‘States … shall develop … secondary … education systems, and shall pursue gradual introduction of free education at this level’); UNCHR, ‘Report of the Working Group on a draft convention on the rights of the child’ (1985) E/CN.4/1985/64, 56 and 63 (‘ …  with a view to introducing at this level cost-free education’), 68 and 74 (Japan opposes obligation of free secondary education).

71 ‘Rules (prescribing conduct or otherwise establishing standards) that are in the process of becoming, though may not ultimately become, binding rules of international law.’ Thomas Gammeltoft-Hansen and others, Tracing the Roles of Soft Law in Human Rights (OUP 2016) 5.

72 CRCC, CO: Tanzania (2001) CRC/C/108, 409; CO: Kenya (2001) CRC/C/111, 135.

73 CRCC, CO: Gabon (2002) CRC/C/114, 230(e); CO: Malawi (2002) CRC/C/114, 435(f): CO: Antilles (2002) CRC/C/118, 576(c).

74 CRCC, CO: Republic of Korea (2003) CRC/C/15/Add.197, 53(b); see also CESCR, CO: Republic of Korea (2001) E/C.12/1/Add.59, 42.

75 CRCC, CO: Romania (2003) CRC/C/15/Add.199, 53(b).

76 CRCC, CO: Panama (2004) CRC/C/140, 145(b).

77 CRCC, CO: Bolivia (2005) CRC/C/146, 647(a).

78 Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, ‘The right to education of persons with disabilities’ (2007) A/HRC/4/29, 84(a).

79 CRCC, ‘Draft General Comment on the implementation of the rights of the child during adolescence’ (April 2016) 73.

80 CRCC, GC 20 (n 10) 68.

81 CRPD Committee, GC 4 (n 48) 29. cf UN Secretary-General, ‘Ad Hoc Committee on a Comprehensive and Integral International Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights and Dignity of Persons with Disabilities’ (2005) A/60/266, 37.

82 UIS, Number of years of (a) free and (b) compulsory primary and secondary education guaranteed in legal frameworks [data file]; although this data set contains numerous omissions.

83 CRC (n 2) art 3(1).

84 CESCR, General Comment No 13, ‘The Right to Education’ (1999) E/C12/1999/10, 6(b) and 11.

85 CRC (n 2) art 5; also CRCC, GC 20 (n 10) 23.

86 CRC (n 2) art 32.

87 CRC (n 2) art 28(3).

88 See e.g. Samuel Berlinski and others, ‘Giving Children a Better Start: Preschool Attendance and School-age Profiles,’ (2008) 92(5/6) Journal of Public Economics 1416; Tassew Woldehanna and Mesele W Araya, ‘Early Investment in Preschool and Completion of Secondary Education in Ethiopia’ (Young Lives 2017).

89 CEDAW (n 23) art 11(2)(c).

90 CRC (n 2) art 18(3).

91 CRC (n 2) art 18(2).

92 Christian Courtis and John Tobin, ‘Article 28: The Right to Education’ in John Tobin (ed), The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child: A Commentary (OUP 2019) 1097.

93 CADE (n 28) art 1(1).

94 ICESCR (n 29) art 2(2).

95 CESCR, General Comment No 20: Non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights (2009) E/C12/GC/20, 25.

96 ACRWC (n 43) art 3.

97 Protocol San Salvador, art 3.

98 World Bank, Open Data, School enrollment, primary and secondary (gross), gender parity index (GPI), SE.ENR.PRIM.FM.ZS and SE.ENR.SECO.FM.ZS [data files].

99 CRC, art 28(1)(b).

100 ICESCR (n 29) art 13(2)(e).

101 Mandla Seleoane, ‘The Right to Education: Lessons from Grootboom’ (2003) 7(1) Law, Democracy & Development 137, 166.

102 Francis Offor and Ronald Olufemi Badru, ‘Beyond Basic Education: Towards a Pragmatarian Justification for Education as a Human Right’ (2013) 10 Ogirisi: a New Journal of African Studies 1, 10.

103 Only the Netherlands, during drafting of UDHR. UN Secretary-General, ‘Comments from Governments on the Draft International Declaration on Human Rights, Draft International Covenant on Human Rights and the Question of Implementation’ (1948) E/CN.4/82/Rev.1, 8 (‘ …  other education than fundamental education cannot be demanded as a right’) and E/CN.4/85, 43 ('the Declaration cannot deal with the problem whether education should be free’).

104 ‘Meeting Records’ (1948) A/C.3/SR.93, 70 (‘Turkish delegation would like to see … free education … not be limited to primary instruction’) and A/C.3/SR.147, 587 (Chilean delegate ‘ …  would … support amendments recommending that higher and even university education should be free’); ‘New Zealand: Amendments’ (1948) A/C.3/267, 2 (New Zealand proposal: ‘Education shall be free and universal’); UNCHR, ‘Report of the Sixth Session’ (1950) E/1681, 27 (Yugoslavia proposal: ‘Every person has the right to be guaranteed … free education at all stages’) and ‘Summary Record of 206th meeting’ (1951) E/CN.4/SR.206, 21 (Uruguay: ‘Utopian to … include … a universal rule making education compulsory and free of charge up to and including the highest grade.’).

105 UNCHR, ‘Communication Received from New Zealand’ (1948) E/CN.4/82/Add.12, 26 (New Zealand proposal: ‘Education should, so far as possible, be free and universal’) and ‘Summary Record of the 228th Meeting’ (1951) E/CN.4/SR.228, 16 (Uruguayan delegate ‘regretted that it was not possible … that education should be free at all stages, as … [it] could not command universal support’); General Assembly, Third Committee, ‘Meeting Records’ (1948) A/C.3/SR.146, 580 (Turkish delegate ‘ …  would have liked to suggest that all education should be free … but … [it] could not be brought about everywhere immediately’.)

106 Lundy, Orr and Shier (n 39) 365.

107 Author calculation comparing 1966 and 2020, from World Bank, Open Data, GDP per capita (constant 2015US$), NY.GDP.PCAP.KD [data file].

108 Ibid.

109 See e.g. CESCR, CO: Republic of Korea (1995) E/1996/22, 76 (‘ …  given the strength of the economy … free education should also extend to the secondary’); CO: Panama (2001) E/2002/22, 461 (‘ …  inadequate resources have been allocated to … secondary education’); CEDAW, CO: India (2000) A/55/38, 65 (‘ …  provide adequate resources for … secondary’); CRCC, CO: Macedonia (2000) CRC/C/94, 282 ('secondary schools are under-resourced … [R]eview the allocation of financial and other resources’); CO: Ethiopia (2001) CRC/C/103, 182 (‘ …  insufficient resources … are having a negative impact on … secondary school’); CO: Portugal (2001) CRC/C/111, 246(a) (‘ …  concerned at … low levels of investment in … pre-primary education’).

110 Laura Lundy, Karen Orr and Chelsea Marshall, ‘Towards Better Investment in the Rights of Children: The Views of Children’ (2015) Queens University Belfast/Child Rights Connect 10–12.

111 Vitallis Chikoko and Pinkie Mthembu, ‘Financing Primary and Secondary Sducation in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review of Literature’ (2020) 40(4) South African Journal of Education 1, 7. See also Ahmed Baghdady and Omar Zaki, ‘Secondary Education Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa’ Background Paper (World Innovation Summit for Education 2019) <www.wise-qatar.org/app/uploads/2020/04/wise-9-report-web.pdf> accessed 17 May 2022.

112 ICESCR (n 29) art 2(1); CRC (n 2) art 4; ILO C182, art 7(2).

113 CRC (n 2) art 28(3).

114 Optional Protocol to the CRC on the involvement of children in armed conflict (adopted 25 May 2000, entered into force 12 February 2002) 2173 UNTS 2222 (CRC-OPAC) art 7(2).

115 UNESCO, Incheon Declaration and SDG4 – Education 2030 Framework for Action (2016) ED-2016/WS/28 (Incheon) Declaration 14.

116 UNGA Res 2626 (1970) 43.

117 UNESCO, Incheon Framework (n 115) 106–107.

118 UNESCO, ‘Pricing the right to education: the cost of reaching new targets by 2030’ (2015) Education for All Global Monitoring Report Policy Paper 18, 5.

119 World Bank, Open Data, Government expenditure on education, total (% of government expenditure), and total (% of GDP), SE.XPD.TOTL.GB.ZS and SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS [data files].

120 Amartya Sen, ‘Elements of a Theory of Human Rights’ (2004) 32(4) Philosophy & Public Affairs 315, 348; Tristan McCowan, Education as a Human Right: Principles for a Universal Entitlement to Learning (Bloomsbury 2013) 55.

121 CRC (n 2) art 1(b).

122 ICESCR (n 29) art 13(2)(e).

123 Stephen Kidd and others, Exclusion by Design: An Assessment of the Effectiveness of the Proxy Means Test Poverty Targeting Mechanism (2017) ILO Working Paper, ix.

124 Annissa Sri Kusumawati, ‘The Effectiveness of Targeting Social Transfer Programs in Indonesia’ (2019) 3 (3) Indonesian Journal of Development Planning 282.

125 John Boit, ‘Who Benefits from Secondary Education Bursary Fund in Kenya?’ (2015) 7 (2) International Journal of Education 337.

126 See e.g. HRW, ‘Complicit in Exclusion’: South Africa's Failure to Guarantee an Inclusive Education for Children with Disabilities (2015) 26–27.

127 Coalition for Health and Education Rights, Patrick Watt and Rick Rowden, ‘User Fees: The Right to Education and Health Denied’ (Coalition for Health and Education Rights policy brief for UN Special Session on Children 2002) 8.

128 See e.g. Manos Matsaganis and others, ‘Non-Take Up of Social Benefits in Greece and Spain’ (2010) 44(7) Social Policy & Administration 827.

129 W Steven Barnett and Milagros Nores, ‘Investment and Productivity Arguments for ECCE’ in Marope and Kaga (n 44) 72–88.

130 Office of the President of the United States, ‘The Economies of Early Childhood Investments’ (2014) 31; see e.g. Chasya Hoagland and others, ‘Early Childhood Education for Low-Income Students: A Review of the Evidence and Benefit-Cost Analysis Update’ (2019) Washington State Institute for Public Policy.

131 Wendy Janssens and others, ‘Egypt: An Economic Analysis of Early Childhood Education/Development’ (Academy for Educational Development 2001).

132 Mehmet Kaytaz, ‘A Cost Benefit Analysis of Preschool Education in Turkey’ (2005) Mother Child Education Foundation.

133 Engle and others (n 49).

134 George Psacharopoulos and Harry Patrinos, ‘Returns to Investment in Education: A Decennial Review of the Global Literature’ (2018) World Bank Group Policy Research Working Paper 8402.

135 Elina Pradhan and others, ‘The Effects of Education Quantity and Quality on Mortality’ in Donald Bundy and others (eds), Optimizing Education Outcomes: High-Return Investments in School Health for Increased Participation and Learning (World Bank 2018) 211–27.

136 UNGA Res 70/1 (2015).

137 Ibid.

138 UNESCO, Incheon Framework (n 115) 29.

139 UNESCO, SDG 4 data digest 2021: national SDG 4 benchmarks (2021).

140 A civil-society effort may not reach the threshold of soft law without ‘ …  a degree of … acceptance by the authors of international law – states’. John Cerone, ‘A Taxonomy of Soft Law’ in Gammeltoft-Hansen and others (n 71) 21.

141 UNGA ‘Report of the Human Rights Committee’ A/39/40(SUPP) (1984), 542.

142 Statute of the International Court of Justice (18 April 1946) 33 UNTS 993, art 38(1)(d).

143 See e.g. Juma Musjid Primary School v Essay NO and others CCT 29/10 2011 Constitutional Court of South Africa.

144 Charlotte Alexander and Jonathan Todres, ‘Evaluating the Implementation of Human Rights Law: A Data Analytics Research Agenda’ (2022) 43 University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law 1.

145 CRCC, GC 7 (n 46) 28–30, and GC 20 (n 10) 68.

146 VCLT (n 45) art 31(1).

147 Charter of the United Nations (adopted 26 June 1945, entered into force 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS 16, 13(1)(a).

148 UN Office of Legal Affairs, ‘Use of the Terms “Declaration” and “Recommendation”’ E/CN.4/L.610 (1962).

149 Léticia Villeneuve, ‘Could the Progressive “Hardening” of Human Rights Soft Law Impair its Further Expansion?’ in Gammeltoft-Hansen and others (n 71) 216.

150 CADE (n 28) art 7; Convention on Technical and Vocational Education, art 7; Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education (adopted 25 November 2019) CL/4318, art 15. The commission of experts to settle disputes between ratifying states of a protocol to the CADE met just once since 1971. Report of the Meeting of the Conciliation and Good Offices Commission 2005.

151 Lundy, Orr and Shier (n 39) 364.

152 CRC (n 2) art 50; ICESCR (n 29) art 29.

153 ‘Proposed Amendment by Costa Rica’ CN.147.1993.Treaties-5 (1993) and Amendment to article 43 (2) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 12 December 1995, entered into force 18 November 2002) 2100 UNTS 210.

154 Jo Becker, Campaigning for Justice: Human Rights Advocacy in Practice (Stanford University Press 2013) 25.

155 Michael Freeman, ‘The Future of Children's Rights’ (2000) 14(4) Children & Society 277. See also Laura Lundy and others, ‘What If Children Had Been Involved In Drafting the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child?’ in Alison Diduck and others (eds), Law in Society: Reflections on Children, Families, Culture and Philosophy: Essays in Honour Michael Freeman (Brill Nijhoff 2015).

156 CRCC, GC No 12: The Right of the Child to be Heard (2009) CRC/C/GC/12, 134(f).

157 María Soledad Cisternas, ‘Derecho a la Educación: Marco Jurídico y Justiciabilidad’ (2010) 4(2) Revista Latinoamericana de Educación Inclusiva 41, 53.

158 CESCR, GC No 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (1990) E/1991/23, 5.

159 Courtney Jung and others, ‘Economic and Social Rights in National Constitutions’ (2014) 62 (4) American Journal of Comparative Law 1043, 1054.

160 In May 2022, for example, the CRCC is scheduled to review the report submitted by Cyprus in August 2018.

161 CRC-OPAC, art 8; Optional Protocol to the CRC on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (adopted 16 March 2001, entered into force 18 January 2002) 2171 UNTS 227, art 12.

162 Alexander and Todres (n 144).

163 Courtis and Tobin (n 92) 1128.

164 See e.g. UNESCO Right to Pre-Primary Education (n 44) 35–39.

165 For example, for Indigenous children (Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, UNGA Res 61/295 (2007) arts 14–15 and 17); unaccompanied refugee children (UNGA Res 58/150 (2003) 10); internally displaced people (Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2, principle 23); people of all gender identities and sexual orientations (see e.g. Comas Gómez v SENA judgment T-363/16 July 2016 Constitutional Court of Colombia; CRCC, GC 20 (n 10) 33); people living with HIV/AIDS (see e.g de Soyza v Minister of Education SC FR No 77/2016 March 2016 Supreme Court of Sri Lanka); children in situations of armed conflict (see e.g. UNSC Res 1314 (2000) 14, and Res 2601 (2021); Safe Schools Declaration (2015)); children involved in disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration processes (see e.g. UNSC Res 1539 (2004) 8); children during peace processes and post-conflict situations (see e.g. UNSC Res 1674 (2006) 11); children at any stage of the justice system (see e.g. UN Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice, UNGA Res. 40/33 (1985) 13.5 and 24.1; UN Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty, UNGA Res. 45/113 (1990), rule 38); minority communities (Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious, and Linguistic Minorities, UNGA Res. 47/135 (1992) art. 4(3)-(4); CRCC, GC 20 (n 10) 70); adolescents living or working on the streets (CRCC, GC 20 (n 10) 70); and pregnant or married students, and new parents (African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, Joint GC on Ending Child Marriage, 2017, 31; Joint GC No 31 of the CEDAW/ No 18 of the CRCC on harmful practices, CEDAW/C/GC/31-CRC/C/GC/18 (2014) 69(a)). Existing protections for refugee children could be strengthened to state that refugees must be able to resume their education three months after arrival in a host country, as stated in UNGA ‘Global Compact on Refugees’ A/73/12 (2018) 68.

166 For example, that education be provided in safe facilities (see e.g. Mehrotra v India WP (Civil) No 483 of 2004 (2009) 6 SCC 398 Supreme Court of India); schools have drinking water and toilets (see e.g. Environmental & Consumer Protection Foundation v Delhi Administration WP (Civil) No 631 of 2004 October 2012 Supreme Court of India); transport for students for whom it would otherwise be a barrier (see e.g. Diosa Lizarazo García v Santander government judgment T-008/16 22 January 2016 Constitutional Court of Colombia); security forces not occupy or use schools (CESCR, CO: Pakistan, E/C12/PAK/CO/1 (2017) 80; CEDAW Committee, CO: India, CEDAW/C/IND/CO/4-5 (2014) 27; CRCC, CO: Yemen, CRC/C/OPAC/YEM/CO/1 (2014) 30; Safe Schools Declaration (2015); Nandini Sundar v Chhattisgarh WP (Civil) No 250 of 2007 order of 18 January 2011 Supreme Court of India); and states ensure private schools comply to minimum government standards (Initiative for Social and Economic Rights v Attorney General Civil Suit No 353 of 2016 judgement July 2019 Uganda High Court; Abidjan Principles on the human rights obligations of States to provide public education and to regulate private involvement in education (2019)).

167 For example, digital literacy and free and safe access to digital technologies (CRCC, GC No 25 on children's rights in relation to the digital environment, CRC/C/GC/25 (2021) 9 and 104–105; and GC 20 (n 10) 47); education for sustainable development, including environmental and climate literacy (see e.g. UNESCO, Berlin Declaration on Education for Sustainable Development (2021)); and comprehensive sexuality education (CRCC, GC 20 (n 10) 61; CRCC 18 n 165, 69(d); Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, A/65/162 (2010) 8–11).

168 Ingrid Robeyns, ‘Three Models of Education: Rights, Capabilities and Human Capital’ (2006) 4(1) Theory and Research in Education 69, 76.

169 Ibid. 77.

170 HRW, ‘Years Don't Wait for Them’: Increased Inequalities in Children's Rights to Education due to the Covid-19 Pandemic (HRW 2021).