Stress, anxiety, depression and long COVID symptoms

ABSTRACT

Background

The development of depression and anxiety symptoms during long COVID may partly result from the biopsychosocial effects of COVID-19 that impact mental health, rather than from the infection alone.

Aim

The present study examined the association of anxiety, depression, stress, and psychological distress levels with sociodemographic factors and symptom severity during and three months after the acute phase of COVID-19.

Methods

This cross-sectional study included 119 participants with a positive SARS-CoV-2 qPCR test. Three months after the acute phase of infection, participants completed an online survey to collect clinical information and sociodemographic data, followed by completion of the Impact of Event Scale-Revised, Depression, Anxiety, and Stress scales.

Results

During and after infection, fatigue was the most frequently reported symptom. After the acute phase of COVID-19, substantial numbers of participants presented moderate to severe psychological distress (28.5%), severe to extremely severe depression (26.05%), and severe to extremely severe stress (31.09%). Female patients presented higher stress scores than males, while individuals who reported having lost a loved one presented high psychological distress, anxiety, and depression. The presence of physical symptoms after COVID-19 and other factors such as being a woman, being married, having children, or living with someone who suffers from a disease increased vulnerability to depression, stress, and anxiety.

Conclusions

There are psychological consequences for survivors of COVID-19 associated with sociodemographic factors. Clinical strategies are needed to provide mental health care for individuals with long COVID symptoms.

KEYWORDS:

• COVID-19
• stress
• anxiety
• depression
• SARS-CoV-2

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Atenas Paulina Gonzalez García, Carmen Rojas Pérez, and Sergio Vera Ramírez for their psychological care to the participants in this study and the Department of Educational Innovation and Academic Development for their clerical support. This protocol was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Dean of Health Sciences of the Popular Autonomous University of the State of Puebla (permit No. CONBIOETICA21CEI00620131021). All procedures in studies involving human participants were performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments, or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was partially funded by Consejo de Ciencia y Tecnología del Estado de Puebla [grant number 127/2020].

Notes on contributors

Elizabeth Bautista-Rodriguez

Elizabeth Bautista-Rodriguez Pharmacobiologist Chemist, Master and PhD in Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology.

Nadia Yanet Cortés-Álvarez

Nadia Yanet Cortés-Álvarez Bachelor of Nursing, PhD in Medical Sciences.

César Rubén Vuelvas-Olmos

César Rubén Vuelvas-Olmos Psychologist, Master and PhD in Medical Sciences.

Verónica Reyes-Meza

Verónica Reyes-Meza Degree in Psychology and Master in Neuropsychological Diagnosis and Rehabilitation and PhD in Neuroethology.

Thelma González-López

Thelma González-López Psychologist, Administrative Coordinator of the Psychology Clinic at UPAEP.

César Flores-delosÁngeles

César Flores-delosÁngeles Engineer and teacher in Biotechnology, Head of the molecular diagnostic laboratory.

Nancy Bibiana Pérez-Silva

Nancy Bibiana Pérez-Silva Biologist, Master in Assistant Biotechnology of the UPAEP Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory.

Héctor Alberto Aguirre-Alarcón

Héctor Alberto Aguirre-Alarcón Engineer and Master in Biotechnology.

Jose Luis Cortez-Sanchez

Jose Luis Cortez-Sanchez Pharmacobiological Chemist, Master’s Degree and PhD in Biological Sciences.

Valeria Magali Rocha-Rocha

Valeria Magali Rocha-Rocha Degree in applied mathematics, master’s degree in Biostatistics in Public Health.

Jorge Escobedo-Straffon

Jorge Escobedo-Straffon Veterinary Doctor, Master in Biotechnology.

Laura Contreras-Mioni

Laura Contreras-Mioni Pharmacobiological Chemist, Master in Clinical Pharmacology and PhD. in biotechnology.

Maria-Lourdes Reyes-Vergara

Maria-Lourdes Reyes-Vergara Graduate in Mathematics Education, in charge of the Department of Educational Innovation and Academic Development.