https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8300-2110
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ABSTRACT
This study lays the foundations for bringing together the study of intersectionality and globalization concerning gender. We argue that intersectionality, by taking into account some of the criticisms made against it, can be improved and used to enrich the study of global inequality. Focusing on Morocco, we show how the study of gender relationships from an intersectional perspective can give us more information about how the international division of labor works. With the aim of deconstructing the narrative of ‘women without agency’, we argue that intersectionality can help to explain oppression. In order to make otherness visible, we contribute to reconstructing and rethinking categories that help to explain these interconnected realities through the day-to-day life of men and women workers in a context generated by industrial relocation and global processes.
Acknowledgements
The authors want to thank Jesús Martínez Sevilla for his insightful comments and constructive suggestions regarding our manuscript.
Notes
1. Sassen, Contrageografías de la globalización, 46–50.
2. Boserup, Woman’s Role in Economic Development; and Deere, “Rural Women’s Subsistence Production.”
3. Castells, Observatorio Global.
4. Musteen, “Behavioral Factors in Offshoring Decisions.”
5. Urry, Offshoring.
6. Benería et al., Gender, Development and Globalization, 21.
7. We used the same word used by the quoted author because it has some important nuances: by using the concept of ‘underdevelopment’ we are reminded that this reality is a consequence of the current model of development (Sampedro and Berzosa, Conciencia del subdesarrollo). In addition, reference to ‘underdeveloped areas’ instead of countries points to the fact that there exist impoverished areas in ‘developed’ countries at the same time that there exist areas of wealth concentration in ‘underdeveloped’ countries.
8. Entrena, “Facing Globalization from the Local.”
9. All economic data in this paragraph is based on the official report of the Moroccan Observatory of Industry (2015).
10. Trinidad et al., “La economía global localizada.”
11. Hennebry et al., “From ‘Khadema’ to ‘Zemegria’.”
12. Trinidad et al., “Working conditions in the export industry of northern Morocco.”
13. Mevel et al., “Optimal Regional Trade-Integration Schemes”; and Barros, Inmigración y mercado de trabajo en España.
14. The Haut Commissariat au Plan (HCP) or Higher Planning Commission in Morocco is an independent government statistical institution. Established in 2003, the HCP is the main source of economic, demographic and social statistical data.
15. Meknassi and Rioux, “Labour Relations and Collective Bargaining in Morocco.”
16. Davis, “Environmentalism, and Agricultural Restructuring in Morocco.”
17. Pérez Beltrán, “Mujeres marroquíes en la vida pública.”
18. Solís, “La construcción simbólica.”
19. Salzinger, Genders in Production, 21.
20. Hryciuk, “Mothering for neoliberal times,” 540.
21. Bouasria, Les ouvrières marocaines en mouvement.
22. See note 12 above.
23. Fraser, “Contradictions of capital and Care,” 105.
24. See note 21 above.
25. Alves de Matos, “Precarity Gender Capita and Structures of (Dis)empowerment.”
26. Choo and Ferree, “Practicing Intersectionality,” 135.
27. Phoenix, “Interrogating Intersectionality,” 28.
28. García Selgas, “Género rol e identidad.”
29. Wieviorka, “La mutación del racismo.”
30. Ibid., 20 (my italics).
31. González Arnal, “La lógica de la ‘pureza’.”
32. Medina, “Feminismos periféricos, feminismos-otros,” 72.
33. Nash, “‘Home truths’ on Intersectionality.”
34. Bastia, “Intersectionality, Migration and Development,” 239.
35. See Nash, “‘Home truths’ on Intersectionality,” 453.
36. Carbado, “Colorblind Intersectionality,” 823.
37. McCall, “The Complexity of Intersectionality,” 1785.
38. Ibid., 1773.
39. Martinez, Martin and Marlow, “Developing a Critical Realist Positional.”
40. Riaño, “Drawing New Boundaries of Participation.”
41. Soriano et al., “The Symbolic Place of Female Workers.”
42. Bourdieu and Passeron, Les héritiers.
43. Julian T. Hart explains how the availability of good medical care tends to vary inversely with the need for it in the population served. Indeed, this law operates more fully where medical care is most exposed to market forces. Hart, “The Inverse Care Law.”
44. See Soriano et al., “The Symbolic Place of Female Workers,” 67.
45. Creenshaw, “Postscript.”
46. Mezzadri, “Class, Gender and the Sweatshop,” 1892.
47. García and Jordán, “El proceso de privatización.”
48. Bjerén, “Gender and Reproduction”; Polanco, A Critical Analysis of World Bank; and Zhang, “Untangling the Intersectional Biopolitics.”
49. Bifani, “El impacto de los Programas de Ajuste Estructural.”
50. Bair, “On Difference and Capital,” 216.
51. See note 17 above.
52. Mernissi, « Chahrazad n’est pas marocaine. »
53. See note 10 above.
54. Aixelá, “La imagen de las mujeres marroquíes.”
55. Piore, “The Dual Labor Market.”
56. Massey, “Teorías de migración internacional.”
57. Midech, “Comment le Mexique a fait fortune avec ses maquiladoras “ (La Vie Eco, 27 January 2006).
58. Domínguez et al. “Women Workers in the Maquiladoras,” 201.
59. Labrecque, “De ama de casa a obrera.”
60. Ibid., 150.
61. Mignolo, Historias locales/diseños globales.
62. See note 10 above.
63. Federici, Caliban and the witch.
64. Galceran, La Bárbara Europa.
65. Grosfoguel, “El concepto de racismo.”
66. Quintero, “Trabajadores en la maquila.”
67. See note 6 above.
68. Bredström, “Intersectionality: A Challenge for Feminist HIV/AIDS Research?”
69. Paz Antolín and Pérez Orozco, “El empleo femenino en la maquiladora.”
70. Ramirez, « La valeur du travail. »
71. See Bouasria, Les ouvrières marocaines en mouvement, 23.
Additional information
Funding
Notes on contributors
Rocío Fajardo-Fernández
PhD Student Rocío Fajardo-Fernández studied Sociology and has a Masters in Social Problems from the University of Granada. Currently, she holds a grant from Spain’s Ministry of Education to conclude her doctoral thesis on Gender relationships and Industrial Relocation. She already has two publications, both in Revista Internacional de Estudios Migratorios: “The Mediterranean Sea as a Border: Difficulties Surrounding the Concept of Migration” (in English) and “Media Construction of Migration in the Mediterranean Sea: Non-Citizenship in Spanish Press” (in Spanish). She has presented her work in several congress and workshops, some in English, such as at the IX CIS-Harvard Summer Seminar on Sociological and Political Research (Boston, 2016) and the Mid-Term Conference 2017 of the European Sociological Association (Córdoba, 2017).
Rosa M. Soriano-Miras
Rosa M. Soriano-Miras holds a PhD in Sociology and a BS in Political Science and Sociology from the University of Granada. She is a member of the Institute of Migration. Her latest publications include: “The Moroccan geopolitical position as the vertical border of the European Union”, 2017, Ciencia UAT, and “The Symbolic Place of Female Workers in the Borderlands Export Industry: The case of Morocco” 2016, in Solis M: Gender Transitions along Borders. Since 1996, she has been Professor in the Faculty of Political Sciences and Sociology at the University of Granada. Her main fields of research activity are Migration, Gender and the Sociology of Globalization. She is also a member of the SEJ 129 Research Group: Social problems in Andalusia.
Antonio Trinidad Requena
Dr. Antonio Trinidad Requena holds a PhD in Sociology and a BS in education from the University of Granada. He is the Lead Researcher for the following projects: “Industrial Offshoring and Clothes Shopping Patterns in the Global North: The Cases of Europe and North America”, financed by BBVA; “Reconstructing the countryside in non-border regions in industrial relocation and migration” (CSO 2013-140,646-P) part of the national research plan of Spain’s Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competition; and also the project “Industrial relocation and immigration: the role of export industry in the countries of origin (Morocco and Mexico)”, financed by the national research plan of Spain’s Ministry of Science and Innovation (CSO 2010-16,112). His most recent publications include ‘The Localized Global Economy in Northern Morocco’, 2015, REIS: Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas, No. 152, pp. 121-142, and Marcos de análisis de los problemas sociales [Frames of analysis of social problems], 2016, Catarata. He currently serves as a professor of sociology in the Department of Sociology at the University of Granada. Currently, he is Dean in the Faculty of Political Sciences and Sociology at the University of Granada.