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Articles

Morality and the Muselmann: Mapping Virtues and Norms in Prisoners' Societies of Mauthausen and Auschwitz–Birkenau

Pages 175-197 | Published online: 12 Aug 2020
 

ABSTRACT

The phenomenon Muselmann was a peculiarity of Nazi concentration camps. In survivor’s testimonies, the term appears frequently enough to assume that it denotes a particular, commonly recognized category of prisoners. It was probably the only category that was not defined by the Nazis’ system of triangle badges and functions. Instead, the prisoner community called specific prisoners Muselmann. In nearly every NS concentration camp, prisoners labeled their weakest fellows with a racist term and located them at the bottom of the hierarchy. My research explores the moral dimension of this label. Introducing Moral Foundations Theory to the topic, I map the domain of morality in NS concentration camps as presented by Auschwitz-Birkenau and Mauthausen survivors when they speak or write about Muselmänner. My analysis deepens the understanding of the relationship between Muselmänner and other prisoners. Engaging in moral history or history of morality, it offers a fresh perspective on the functioning of prisoners’ society in NS concentration camps. Doing so, it contributes to the discourse on stability and change of normative morality in extreme situations.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes on contributor

Dr. phil. Imke Hansen specializes in East European Contemporary History,Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Oral History, and Memory Studies. As a researcher and teacher, she worked at the universities of Hamburg(Germany), Uppsala (Sweden) and Minsk (Belarus). For the past three years, she researched social conditions of memory in the DFG-project“Jews and Germans in Polish Collective Memory.” Her doctoral dissertation (2012) on the early development of the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum was awarded the Polish Ambassador's Prize and the Auschwitz Foundation - Remembrance of Auschwitz Prize.

Notes

1 Danuta Wesołowska, Słowa z piekieł rodem (Kraków: Oficyna Wydawn. Impuls, 1996), p. 95. All originally Polish statements are translated by the author.

2 For instance, in the pioneering study by Wolfgang Sofsky, The Order of Terror: The Concentration Camp (1993; Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).

3 For a comprehensive overview of literature on the Muselmann, see Michael Becker and Dennis Bock, “‘Muselmänner’ und Häftlingsgesellschaften: Ein Beitrag zur Sozialgeschichte der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager,” Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, vol. 55 (2015): pp. 138–142; and Michael Becker and Dennis Bock, “Muselmänner in Nazi Concentration Camps: Thinking Masculinity at the Extremes,” in Björn Krondorfer and Ovidiu Creangă, (eds.), The Holocaust and Masculinities: Critical Inquiries into the Presence and Absence of Men (New York: SUNY, 2020), pp. 129–146.

4 See, for instance, Tzvetan Todorov, Facing the Extreme: Moral life in the Concentration Camps (London: Phoenix, 2000); Jane Caplan and Nikolaus Wachsmann, (eds.), Concentration Camps in Nazi Germany: The New Histories (London: Routledge, 2010); Nikolaus Wachsmann, KL: A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2015); Maja Suderland, Inside Concentration Camps: Social Life at the Extremes (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2013, original 2009).

5 Online collection of the Medical Review: https://www.mp.pl/auschwitz/journal/polish.

6 See, for instance, Stanisław Jagielski, “Psychiczne ‘galwanizowanie muzułmana’,” Przegla̜d Lekarski, vol. 24, no. 1 (1968): pp. 106–109; Władisław Fejkiel, Więźniarski szpital w KL Auschwitz (Oświęcim: Państwowe Muzeum Oświęcim–Brzezinka, 1994).

7 See, among others, Władysław Kuraszkiewicz, Je̜zyk polski w obozie koncentracyjnym (Lublin, 1947); Witold Doroszewski, (ed.), Rozmowy o je¸zyku (Warsaw: Radiowy Inst. Wydawn, 1948); Mojżesz Altbauer, “Przyczynki do słownictwa wojennego: Muzułman – niem. Muselman,” Język Polski, vol. 30, no. 2 (1950): pp. 84–87.

8 Habbo Knoch and Benjamin Möckel, “Moral History,” Zeithistorische Forschungen/Studies in Contemporary History, Online-Edition, no. 1 (2017).

9 Bernard Gert and Joshua Gert, “The Definition of Morality,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017 Edition), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/morality-definition/ (accessed May 15, 2020).

10 Gert and Gert, “The Definition of Morality.”

11 Jonathan Haidt and Joseph Craig, “The Moral Mind: How Five Sets of Innate Institutions Guide the Development of Many Culture-Specific Virtues, and Perhaps Even Modules,” in Peter Carruthers, Stephen Laurence, and Stephen Stich, (eds.), The Innate Mind, Volume 3 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 386, see also p. 368f.

12 Haidt and Craig, “The Moral Mind,” p. 368.

13 Ibid.

14 Ibid., p. 369.

15 Chandra S. Sripada and Stephen Stich, “A Framework for the Psychology of Norms,” in Carruthers et al., The Innate Mind, pp. 280–301.

16 Haidt and Craig, “The Moral Mind,” p. 372.

17 Edmund Pincoffs, “Quandary Ethics,” Mind: New Series, vol. 80, no. 320 (1971): pp. 552–571.

18 Elliot Turiel, The Development of Social Knowledge: Morality and Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983), p. 3.

19 See Alicja Glińska, Obraz moralności obozowej w pamiętnikach polskich więźniów Oświęcimia (Katowice, 1966); Alicja Glińska, “Moralność więżniów Oświęcimia,” Etyka, no. 2 (1967): pp. 173–232; as well as several articles in Przegla̜d Lekarski 1967–1969.

20 Alicja Glińska, “Z badań nad moralnością więżniów Oświęcimia,” Przegla̜d Lekarski, vol. 23, no. 1 (1967): pp. 37–45, here p. 39.

21 Glińska, “Moralność więżniów Oświęcimia,” p. 177.

22 Alicja Glińska, “Kierunek przekształceń moralnych wsród więżniów Oświęcimia,” Przegla̜d Lekarski, vol. 25, no. 1 (1969): pp. 53–57, here p. 56.

23 Glińska, “Istota i mechanizm przemiań w moralności więżniów Oświęcimia,” Przegla̜d Lekarski, vol. 25, no. 1 (1969): pp. 57–69, here p. 57.

24 Glińska, “Kierunek przekształceń,” p. 56.

25 Primo Levi, The Drowned and the Saved (New York: Vintage International, 1989), pp. 78–79.

26 Glińska, “Istota i mechanizm przemiań,” p. 58.

27 Anna Pawełczyńska, Values and Violence in Auschwitz (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), p. xxv.

28 Pawełczyńska, Values and Violence in Auschwitz, p. 144.

29 Ibid., p. 141.

30 Terrence Des Pres, The Survivor: An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), p. 142.

31 Benedikt Kautsky, Teufel und Verdammte: Erfahrungen und Erkenntnisse aus sieben Jahren in deutschen Konzentrationslagern (Zürich: Büchergilde Gutenberg, 1961): pp. 165–166.

32 Kautsky, Teufel und Verdammte, p. 165.

33 Glińska, “Z badan nad moralnością,” p. 40.

34 Haidt and Craig, “The Moral Mind,” p. 369.

35 Bruno Bettelheim, “Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations,” The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, vol. 38, no. 4 (1943): 417–452, here pp. 436, 445–446; Elie Cohen, Human Behaviour in the Concentration Camp (London: Cape, 1954): pp. 174–176.

36 Ruth Leys, From Guilt to Shame: Auschwitz and After (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 8.

37 For a pointed analysis of this antimimetic turn, see Leys, From Guilt to Shame.

38 Ibid., p. 56.

39 Des Pres, The Survivor, p. 142.

40 Viktor E. Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), p. 135.

41 Lawrence L. Langer, Versions of Survival: The Holocaust and the Human Spirit (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1982), p. 47.

42 Lawrence L. Langer, “The Dilemma of Choice in the Death Camps,” in John K. Roth and Michael Berenbaum, (eds.), Holocaust: Religious and Philosophical Implications (St. Paul, MN: Paragon House Publishers, 1989), p. 224.

43 Langer, “The Dilemma of Choice in the Death Camps,” p. 223.

44 Robert Antelme, The Human Race (Evanston, IL: Marlboro Press, 1992), p. 178.

45 Haidt and Craig, “The Moral Mind,” p. 368.

46 Glińska, “Kierunek przekształceń,” p. 54.

47 Ibid., p. 53.

48 Władysław Fejkiel, “Der Hunger in Auschwitz,” Hefte von Auschwitz, vol. 8 (1964): p. 7.

49 Glińska, “Kierunek przekształceń,” p. 55.

50 Edmund Polak, Morituri (Warsaw: Czytelnik, 1968), pp. 172–173; Krystyna Justa, Z bagna i kamieni (Warsaw: Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza “Książka”, 1948), p. 31; Janusz Nel Siedlecki, Krystyn Olszewski, and Tadeusz Borowski, Byliśmy w Oświęcimiu (Munich: Oficyna Warszawska na Obczyźnie, 1946), p. 25.

51 Zdzisław Ryn and Stanisław Kłodziński, “An der Grenze zwischen Leben und Tod: Eine Studie über die Erscheinung des ‘Muselmanns’ im Konzentrationslager,” in Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, (ed.), Die Auschwitz-Hefte: Texte der polnischen ZeitschriftPrzegla̜d lekarskiüber historische, psychische und medizinische Aspekte des Lebens und Sterbens in Auschwitz (Hamburg: Rogner und Bernhard 1995), pp. 89–154, here p. 144.

52 Witold Doroszewski, “O wyrazie muzułman,” in Doroszewski, (ed.), Rozmowy o języku (Warsaw: Radiowy Inst. Wydawn, 1948), pp. 85–92.

53 Stanisław Sterkowicz, “Przyczynek do zagadnienia moralności więżniów obozów hitlerowskich,” Przegla̜d Lekarski, vol. 25, no. 1 (1969): p. 52.

54 Marek T. Frankowski, Socjologiczne aspekty funkcjonowania hitlerowskich obozów koncentracyjnych: 1939–1945 (Warsaw: Instytut Pamie̜ci Narodowej, 1996), p. 33.

55 Frankowski, Socjologiczne aspekty funkcjonowania hitlerowskich obozów koncentracyjnych, p. 35.

56 See, for instance, works by Richard A. Shweder or Alan P. Fiske.

57 Haidt and Craig, “The Moral Mind,” p. 371.

58 Ibid., p. 381.

59 Ibid., p. 383.

60 Ibid., p. 382.

61 Pawełczyńska, Values and Violence in Auschwitz, p. 74.

62 Archive Mauthausen Memorial (AMM), Mauthausen Survivors Documentation Project (MSDP) OH/ZP1/375, Interview with Stanisław Leszczyński, p. 25.

63 See, for instance, AMM, MSDP, OH/ZP1/726, Interview with Julian Konarski, p. 59.

64 Quoted in Ryn and Kłodziński, “An der Grenze,” p. 96.

65 See, for instance, Tadeusz Murasiewicz, “Trudno zapomnieć,” in Kazimierz Bidakowski, (ed.), Pamiętniki nauczycieli z obozów i więzień hitlerowskich, 1939–1945 (Warsaw: Czytelnik, 1962) pp. 149–312, here p. 214.

66 Glińska, “Z badań nad moralnością,” p. 40.

67 Todorov, Facing the Extreme, p. 84.

68 Ibid., p. 85.

69 Ryn and Kłodziński, “An der Grenze,” pp. 125, 144.

70 Ibid., p. 127.

71 Anna Pawełczyńska, Wartości a przemoc: Zarys socjologicznej problematyki Oświęcimia (Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1973), pp. 66–67. Here, I am quoting the Polish original due to the incorrect translation that results in the claim theft was committed by the weakest prisoners. Pawełczyńska and Leach, Values and Violence in Auschwitz, p. 66.

72 Stanisław Sterkowicz, “Obozowe sprawy życia i śmierci w retrospekcji lekarza,” Przegla̜d Lekarski, vol. 19, no. 1 (1963): pp. 97–101, here p. 99.

73 AMM MSDP OH/ZP1/390, Interview with Wacław Wilk-Wilczyński, p. 26.

74 AMM MSDP OH/ZP1/474, Interview with Nina Parashkievich, p. 15.

75 See, for instance, Stanisław Takuski quoted in Zdzisław Ryn and Stanisław Kłodziński, “Głód w obozie koncentracyjnym,” Przegla̜d Lekarski, vol. 41, no. 1 (1984): pp. 21–37, here p. 28.

76 Archive of the State Museum Auschwitz-Birkenau (hereafter APMAB) Ośw./ Sussmann/64, p. 5.

77 Material of the “Auschwitz Dictionary” (“Słownik Oświęcimski”, hereafter SO), Biedroń, Stanisław. Questionnaire, p. 3.

78 Haidt and Craig, “The Moral Mind,” pp. 382–383.

79 See, for instance, Bronisław Gościnski in Ryn and Kłodziński, “An der Grenze,” p. 135.

80 Zofia Kossak-Szczucka, Z otchłani: Wspomnienia z lagru (Częstochowa: W. Nagłowskiego, 1946): pp. 85–86.

81 Ryn and Kłodziński, “An der Grenze,” p. 109.

82 Haidt and Craig, “The Moral Mind,” p. 383.

83 Henri Tajfel, “Social Categorization and Intergroup Behavior,” European Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 1, no. 2 (1971): pp. 149–178.

84 Haidt and Craig, “The Moral Mind,” p. 382.

85 Ostańkowicz, Ziemia paruja̜ca cyklonem (Łódź: Wydawnictwo Łódzkie, 1967), p. 109.

86 Ryn and Kłodziński, “An der Grenze,” p. 127, see also APMAB, Ośw./Klimaszewska/407, p. 15.

87 See, for instance, APMAB Ośw./Pys/348, 52; APMAB Ośw./Klimaszewska/407 (3695), p. 15; Gawalewicz, Refleksje z poczekalni do gazu: Ze wspomnień muzułmana (Kraków: Wyd. Literackie, 1968), pp. 85–86.

88 Todorov, Facing the Extreme, p. 83.

89 Pawełczyńska, Values and Violence in Auschwitz, p. 91.

90 Todorov, Facing the Extreme, p. 82.

91 Ryn and Kłodziński, “An der Grenze,” p. 89.

92 See, for instance, Nel Siedlecki et al., Byliśmy w Oświęcimiu, p. 25; Władysław Fejkiel, “Medycyna za drutami,” in Kazimierz Bidakowski et al., (eds.), Pamiętniki lekarzy (Warsaw: Czytelnik, 1964), p. 433; Pelagia Lewińska, Oświęcim (Paris: Wydaw. Rady Narodowej Polaków we Francji, 1945), pp. 70–71; Kazimierz Albin, List gończy: Historia mojej ucieczki z Oświęcimia i działności w konspiracji (Warsaw: Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, 1989), pp. 61–62; SO, Tadeusz Kahl, Questionnaire, p. 1.

93 Imke Hansen and Katarzyna Nowak, “Über Leben und Sprechen in Auschwitz: Probleme der Forschung über die Lagersprache der polnischen politischen Häftlinge von Auschwitz,” in Christiane Hess et al., (eds.), Kontinuitäten und Brüche: Neue Perspektiven auf die Geschichte der NS-Konzentrationslager (Berlin: Metropol, 2011), pp. 115–141, here p. 129.

94 Hansen and Nowak, “Über Leben und Sprechen in Auschwitz,” p. 128.

95 Sterkowicz, “Przyczynek do zagadnienia moralności,” p. 52.

96 Haidt and Craig, “The Moral Mind,” p. 384.

97 Kautsky, Teufel und Verdammte, p. 221.

98 Stanisław Dobosiewicz, Mauthausen-Gusen, obóz zagłady (Warsaw: Wydawn. Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, 1977), pp. 409–410.

99 Dobosiewicz, Mauthausen-Gusen, obóz zagłady, p. 411.

100 Kuraszkiewicz, Je̜zyk polski w obozie koncentracyjnym, pp. 22–23, see also SO, Maria Elżbieta Jezierska, Questionnaire, p. 10.

101 See, for instance, Nel Siedlecki et al., Byliśmy w Oświęcimiu, p. 25; APMAB Ośw./ Halter/ 1189, p. 5; Józef Korcz, “Na Majdanku,” in Bidakowski, Pamiętniki nauczycieli, pp. 646–47; APMAB Wsp./ Rybacki/218, p. 1; APMAB Wsp./ Mostowski/195, p. 37.

102 See APMAB Ośw./Szwemberg/1055, p. 96; PO, Marianna Korelus, Questionnaire, p. 5; Kuraszkiewicz, Je̜zyk polski w obozie koncentracyjnym, pp. 22–23; Jerzy Pozimski quoted in Ryn and Kłodziński, “An der Grenze,” p. 96.

103 Fejkiel, “Medycyna za drutami,” pp. 7, 10.

104 Paul Rozin and April E. Fallon, “A Perspective on Disgust,” Psychological Review, vol. 94, no. 1 (1987): pp. 26–41.

105 Haidt and Craig, “The Moral Mind,” p. 384.

106 Kossak-Szczucka, Z otchłani, pp. 85–86.

107 See, for instance, SO, Stefan Kępa, Questionnaire, p. 2; Jerzy Mostowski and Ernestyna Bonarek in Ryn and Kłodziński, “An der Grenze zwischen Leben und Tod,” pp. 101, 115; Tadeusz Murasiewicz, “Trudno zapomnieć,” in Bidakowski, Pamiętniki nauczycieli, p. 214; Sterkowicz, “Obozowe sprawy zycia i smierci w retrospekcji lekarza,” p. 99.

108 APMAB Ośw./ Perun/ 281, 48; Józef Ciepły in Ryn and Kłodziński, “An der Grenze,” p. 103.

109 Jezierska, Questionnaire, p. 4.

110 Ostańkowicz, Ziemia paruja̜ca cyklonem, 58; see also APMAB Wsp./ Sobieraj/323, p. 42; Jan Marszałek in Ryn and Kłodziński, “Głód w obozie koncentracyjnym,” p. 35.

111 Józef Kowalczyk, “Ostatni tydzień w obozie koncentracyjnym,” in Józef Kobyliński, (ed.), Wspomnienia z niemieckich obozów koncentracyjnych (Ebensee: Camp 400 Upper Austria, 1946), p. 133.

112 Ryn and Kłodziński, “An der Grenze zwischen Leben und Tod,” p. 127.

113 Kossak-Szczucka, Z otchłani, pp. 85–86.

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