Teaching animal welfare in veterinary schools in Latin America

Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University.

Figures & data

able 1 Basic topics and contents of an animal welfare course. Animal welfare: neurophysiological and behavioral responses.

1. Animal welfare: neurophysiological and behavioral responses
Topics	Contents
1. Man-animal interaction	#x2013; Domestication of animals #x2013; Types of human-animal interaction (visual, auditory, physical, reward, invasive) #x2013; Factors affecting human-animal relations: prior experience and animal husbandry systems #x2013; Assessing human-animal interaction: fear, approaching and reactivity #x2013; Impact of human-animal relations on AW and productivity #x2013; Global warming and livestock production
2. General adaptation syndrome (GAS)	#x2013; Stages of GAS; Fight and flight response: autonomic responses to acute stress; #x2013; Energetic metabolism; –Sleep-vigilance cycle; #x2013; Thermoregulation; –Acid-base balance
3. Neurophysiological mechanisms in response to stress	#x2013; Modulating responses in the face of stressful stimuli #x2013; Changes in metabolism in response to stress #x2013; Gas exchange and acid-base balance in response to stress #x2013; Changes in water and electrolytic balance
4. Stress, allostasis, allostatic load, habituation and animal adaptation	#x2013; Concepts: stress, allostasis, allostatic load, habituation and adaptation #x2013; Patho-physiology of animal stress; – Psycho-neuro-immune-endocrine system; – Allostatic load and overload: signs and biomarkers
5. Neurobiology of behaviour	#x2013; What is neurobiology? –Biological systems of the animal organism; –Genetic bases of behaviour; #x2013; Limbic system: hippocampus, cerebral amygdala, thalamus, cingulate and hypothalamus; #x2013; Innate responses; – Learned responses; – Cognition; – Memory; –Habituation; –Motivation
6. Emotional states in animals	#x2013; Aggression; – Anxiety; – Pain: use of grimace scales #x2013; Frustration; – Fear; – Anhedonia
7. Sensory perception by animals	#x2013; Smell; – Taste; – Touch; – Vision; – Cognition; – Audition
8. Applied ethology	#x2013; What is behaviour? #x2013; Tinbergen four questions: causal, ontogenetic, phylogenic, adaptative; #x2013; Designing an ethogram
9. Behavioural repertoir	#x2013; Social behaviour: Sexual, maternal, ludic and agonistic behaviour #x2013; Maintenance behaviour: trophic and eliminative behaviours
10. Abnormal behaviour	Vices; – Redirected behaviours; – Anomalous or stereotyped behaviour patterns; – Inactivity; – Excitability
11. AW and the housing accommodation	#x2013; Physical environment: recommendations on space allowance, floor, shade and shelter, light and noise; equipment including feeders and waterers (drinkers) #x2013; Social environment: animal density, commingled animals from different sources or ages, crowding effects #x2013; Climatic environment: recommendations on weather temperature, humidity, ventilation, and environmental noxious gases
12. Measuring animal behaviour	#x2013; States and events #x2013; Measures of behaviour: latency, frequency, duration, intensity, sequence #x2013; Sampling techniques: ad libitum, focal, scan sampling, behavioural #x2013; Recording methods: continuous recording, time lapse interval, one-zero
13. Environmental enrichment	#x2013; What is animal enrichment? #x2013; Social enrichment: conspecifics (mate or group), contra-specifics (human or non-human), without visual and auditory contact #x2013; Occupational enrichment: psychological (control of the environment) and physical activity (exercise) #x2013; Physical enrichment: habitat, accessories, permanent (logs), movable (toys, substrates), external (vegetation, hanging objects) #x2013; Sensorial enrichment: visual (mirrors and images), auditory (vocalizations and music), olfactory, tactile, taste #x2013; Alimentary enrichment
14. Scientific assessment of AW	#x2013; Ethological bases for the scientific assessment of AW #x2013; The concept of biological needs #x2013; Main concepts on AW: AW definition by OIE #x2013; Biological functioning of the organism #x2013; ‘Natural’ behavior of animals #x2013; Emotions of animals #x2013; AW assessment: – The Brambell Report: The Five Freedoms; #x2013; Indicators or biomarkers of AW (invasive and non-invasive): Case studies; – Protocols for the practical assessment of AW (Welfare Quality®, AWIN) #x2013; Risk evaluation applied to AW
15. Euthanasia in pets and in experimentation	#x2013; Euthanasia: Euthanasia techniques, euthanasia agents, euthanasia in pets, euthanasia in experimental animals #x2013; Choosing an appropriate endpoint in experiments using animals for research, teaching and testing #x2013; Confirming death: Signs of return to consciousness in animals under anaesthesia and in stunned animals prior to killing processes #x2013; Humane destruction of livestock: Emergency euthanasia in large animals. #x2013; Disposing of cadavers
16. National and regional legislation related to AW	#x2013; Federal Law of Animal Hygiene #x2013; Law for the Protection of Animals in Mexico City #x2013; NOM-033-SAG/ZOO-2014. Methods for killing domestic and wild animals #x2013; NOM-051-ZOO-1995. Humane treatment when moving animals #x2013; NOM-045-ZOO-1995. Zoo-sanitary characteristics for operations at establishments where animals are confined; e.g. fairs, auctions, exhibitions, markets, and similar events #x2013; NOM-062-ZOO-1999. Technical specifications for the production, care and use of laboratory animals. #x2013; Official Norms that regulate AW in Latin American countries
17. AW and productivity	#x2013; Productivity vs. welfare #x2013; Welfare of laying hens and poultry; #x2013; Welfare of farm hogs; #x2013; Welfare of small ruminants: sheep and goats
18. Enrichment, AW and production through ethology	#x2013; Orphaned animals; –Mother-young distress; –Design of housing facilities; –Man-animal relation; –Use of social facilitation for handling animals; –Feeding; –Changes in social structure
19. The sick animal and its wellbeing	#x2013; Relation between welfare and disease; –Behavior of the sick animal; –Disease and trophic behavior; #x2013; Disease and sleeping behavior; –Behavior as a tool for diagnosing disease

Sources. Adapted from: De Boo and Knight [33,53]; Price and Orihuela [54]; Orihuela [55]; Webster [6,56,57]; Fraser [58]; Mota-Rojas et al. [9,14,22,24]; Galindo and Manteca, [59]. Once these general concepts of AW had been covered, we propose continuing with the content shown in Table 2.

able 2 Basic topics and contents of an animal welfare course. Bioethics, ethology and welfare in domestic animals.

1. Bioethics, Ethology and Welfare in Domestic Animals
Topics	Contents
1. Bioethics and Animal Welfare	#x2013; Zooethics #x2013; Ethical theories framework: – Teleological: Utilitarianism and Emotivism; – Deontological: Absolutionism, Contractualism Virtue Ethics and Ethics of Care and their practical application #x2013; Ethical conflicts or dilemmas in veterinary science #x2013; Animal welfare dilemmas #x2013; The 3R′s: Reduce, replace and refinement practices #x2013; Application of bioethics to a concrete case: “animals used for experimental purposes” (teaching and research)
2. Behavior and welfare in dogs	#x2013; Social behaviour and communication #x2013; Ontogeny of behaviour #x2013; Importance of the socialization period #x2013; Current issues on welfare in canine species #x2013; The stray dog: Abandonment and maltreatment #x2013; Confinement at dog shelters #x2013; Behavioural problems #x2013; Training and work dogs #x2013; Breed selection #x2013; Evaluating stress and improving welfare #x2013; The use of pharmacological and biological therapies #x2013; Behavior modification programs #x2013; Environmental enrichment programs #x2013; Measures of early intervention
3. Behavior and welfare in cats	#x2013; Social and territorial organization (social relations, affective relations, hierarchies, territory) #x2013; Communication #x2013; Ontogeny of behavior #x2013; Learning; -Intelligence #x2013; Behavioral problems of cats (house soiling, aggressiveness, scratching, other stress-related problems) #x2013; Environmental enrichment programs
4. Welfare of dairy cows	#x2013; Transition period #x2013; Lameness: -Scoring systems for diagnosing lameness #x2013; Early detection of sick animals or those at risk of becoming sick: #x2013; Behavior changes #x2013; Use of blood biomarkers; –Use of other technologies #x2013; Assessing AW in dairy production units: Use of Welfare Quality® protocol
5. Behavior and welfare of pigs	#x2013; Maternal behavior; -Weaning behavior; -Thermoregulatory behavior: eliminative behavior; -Trophic behavior; #x2013; Welfare issues in husbandry procedures: early weaning, castration, teeth clipping, tail docking #x2013; Abnormal behavior and stereotypies: tail biting, vacuum chewing, navel suckling, dog sitting, bar biting #x2013; Space allowance for feeder pigs #x2013; Assessing AW in swine production units: Use of Welfare Quality® protocol for pigs
6. Welfare of neonate piglets	#x2013; Relation between uterine dynamics and umbilical cord morphology #x2013; Etiology of meconium staining and meconium-aspiration syndrome #x2013; Determining the physiometabolic profile of neonates #x2013; Vitality scale and latency to first contact with the maternal teat
7. Welfare of sows	#x2013; The use of stalls in pregnant sows #x2013; The use of crates in lactating sows
8. Behavior and welfare of the water buffalo	#x2013; Mother-young bond #x2013; Handling offspring #x2013; Thermoregulation behavior #x2013; Trophic behavior #x2013; Welfare in extensive systems #x2013; Welfare in intensive systems #x2013; Assessing AW in production units
9. Equids behavior and welfare	#x2013; Confinement #x2013; Low roughage diets #x2013; Development of the mother-young bond #x2013; Weaning and breaking the mother-young bond #x2013; Play in the development of colts #x2013; Problems in the mother-young bond #x2013; Temperament and character of the foal #x2013; Assessment of animal welfare using AWIN protocols for working horses and donkeys
10. Welfare in animals in circuses, zoos, dolphinariums, sports and traditional or cultural events	#x2013; Fighting bulls: – Physiological and biochemical responses, #x2013; Muscular lesions, pain and hypovolemic shock #x2013; Circus animals #x2013; Zoos #x2013; Dolphinariums #x2013; Equitation: rodeo (charrería) and racehorses #x2013; Dogfights and cockfights
11. AW in situations of disasters and emergencies	#x2013; Disaster contingencies and AW: –Preparation phase, –Alert phase #x2013; Impact phase, – Phase of emergency, aid or assistance, #x2013; Reconstruction phase #x2013; Evaluating damage and analysis of needs related to AW #x2013; Freedoms and AW criteria during disasters
12. Painful practices in farm animals	#x2013; Surgical castration (orchiectomy): Consequences of extirpating the testicles of production animals, reducing pain in castrated pigs; #x2013; Castration in bovines #x2013; Tail docking (in pigs and ruminants) #x2013; Teeth-clipping in piglets #x2013; Beak trimming #x2013; Dehorning (options for reducing pain during dehorning)
13. Ethology applied to animals at auction	#x2013; Animalś basic needs #x2013; Sensory organs #x2013; Ante mortem ethological measurements #x2013; Ante mortem AW problems #x2013; Effects of lairage facilities design at the abattoir and stockman handling on animals on AW
14. Animal welfare in livestock at markets	#x2013; Transport: – Loading and unloading #x2013; Holding in livestock markets (lairage) #x2013; Inadequate handling: – Lesions, – Diseases #x2013; Recommendations
15. Animal welfare during transport, lairage and slaughtering at abattoirs	#x2013; Shipping: – Transport; – Unloading; – Herding methods #x2013; Stunning methods: Signs of return to sensibility during stunning #x2013; Typification of carcasses

Sources: Keeling and Jensen [60]; Jensen [61]; De la Cruz et al. [62]; Dalmau and Velarde [25]; Gallo [63]; Galindo and Manteca [59]; García-Herrera et al. [64]; Henao et al. [65]; Huertas-Canén [66]; Mora-Medina et al. [46,67]; Mota-Rojas et al. [9,14,22,24]; Orihuela [55]; Mejia-Isaza et al. [68]; Corrales-Hernández et al. [69]; Rosado et al. [70]; Sepulveda and Bustamante [71]; Strappini [72]; Tadich et al. [35].