Identifying crop productivity constraints and opportunities using focus group discussions: A case study with farmers from Tigray

Figures & data

Fig. 1 Location of the study area and the involved locations (woredas) in Tigray, northern Ethiopia (rectangles refer to administrative centres, dots to the locations of the cushets involved).

Table 1 Relative estimated importance of specific concerns for the four different study locations. Estimations by the first author, based on field observations and interviews (BoARD = Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, EA = Edaga Arbi, HW = Hawzen, IN = Inticho, HS = Hagere Selam).

Table 2 Descriptive data of the four locations (TLU = Tropical Livestock Units, standard deviations between brackets, survey data are based on n = 21 for each location).

Variable	Location
	Edaga Arbi	Hawzen	Inticho	Hagere Selam
Farm size total^a (ha)	1.04 (0.55)	0.89 (0.63)	0.68 (0.35)	0.83 (0.41)
Household size^a (persons)	6.43 (1.96)	6.67 (2.15)	6.95 (1.88)	6.48 (2.16)
Farm-family-ratio^a (total ha/person)	0.16 (0.07)	0.13 (0.09)	0.1 (0.05)	0.14 (0.10)
Hiring-index^a (% hired/total land)	39.21 (24.44)	17.98 (22.08)	23.59 (24.56)	21.67 (23.94)
Fertilizer use-index (kg/ha)	90.66 (61.18)	102.15 (60.02)	135.37 (96.91)	50.48 (46.54)
TLU^a total/farm	3.31 (2.09)	2.86 (2.35)	3.09 (1.26)	2.44 (1.73)
Average rainfall (mm/year)^b	742	522	742	683
Mean minimum temperature (°C)^b	12	10	12	11
Mean maximum temperature (°C)^b	27	27	27	23
Parent material^c	Shale, basalt	Shale, sandstone	Basalt	Basalt, shale, sandstone, limestone
Altitude range (m)^c	1950–2200	1950–2100	1959–2100	2300–2600
Soil types^c	Cambisols, Vertisols, Luvisols	Cambisols, Vertisols	Cambisols, Luvisols	Vertisols, Cambisols, Phaezems

a Census data based on individual surveys, conducted 2009 in the tabias involved (see Ref. [38]).

b Adapted from Ref. [39]; rainfall for 1991–2008, temperature for 2008.

c Biophysical data: observations by the first author.

Fig. 2 Farmers from Inticho adding their findings to the map.

Table 3 Twelve categories of constraint and opportunities with in total 106 accommodated issues raised by farmers in the four FGD-workshops.

Category	Mutual concern	Issues
Conservative management	Contra-productive traditional management	wasting time, un-ability to construct well, no manure use, post-harvest losses, many cultural holidays, not taking care for trees, not growing many vegetables, using much food for celebrations, working without plan, not working hard, depending on governmental support, in proper use of credit, not adopting innovations practically, not using fertilizers, not using improved seeds, dated ploughing methods, not using compost, delayed ploughing, livestock destroying crops, incorrect method of sowing, not diverting flood to the land, incorrect use of fertilizer, not ploughing timely, incorrect ploughing method, not weeding, broadcast sowing, not using insecticides, delayed sowing, bad land management, not mixing fertilizer with manure
Agronomic factors	Constraining pests	weeds, humodia (a fungal disease), animal pests, caterpillars, Striga (a parasitic weed)
Land related issues	Relation with specific land qualities	absence of terraces, incidence of soil erosion, poor soil fertility, wet soil, ponding of the land
Location specific issues	General conditions	shortage of rain, natural disasters, fog, hail, delay of rains, absence of micro-dams, rain during harvest
Demographic factors	Shortage of land	small farm, absence of fallow, no crop rotation, high population pressure, absence of forest
Economic factors	Shortage of assets	absence of oxen, not having farm tools, expensive fertilizer
Good management	Traditional management supporting productivity	matching crop with soil type, timely weeding, timely ploughing and sowing, taking care for the crops, ploughing often, not spending food for celebrations, timely farm management, terrace maintenance, proper time use, crop rotation
Innovative management	Management requiring inputs	using credit, using improved seeds, correct sowing method, proper use of insecticides, using drought resistant crops, using selected seeds, loosening soil for vegetables/fruits, growing cash crops, growing suitable improved crops, growing vegetables/fruits, family planning, using insecticide, using improved varieties, improved seeds, availability of vegetable seeds
Soil fertility measures	Improving nutrient status of soil	using fertilizer, using compost, correct use of manure and fertilizer, proper handling of manure and fertilizers, incorporating crop residues, using manure and compost, cheap fertilizer, correct use of fertilizer, correct use of compost
SWC-measures^a	Soil and water conservation	drainage of the land, green strips between the fields, terracing
Irrigation	Irrigation	dam construction, check dams, using ponds/wells, expanding irrigated land, construction of micro-dams, availability of plastic for ponds, using drip irrigation, flood diversion to the land, using diversion
External factors	No direct control by farmers	sufficient rain, peace, support development agents, resettlement of farmers

a SWC = soil and water conservation.

Fig. 3 Mind maps prepared in the workshops in the four locations (from top to down respectively Edaga Arbi, Hawzen, Inticho and Hagere Selam).

Table 4 Radial diagrams showing relative perceived impact of constraints and opportunities on crop productivity for four locations in Tigray. Relative perceived impact is expressed as a% of the maximum (swc = soil and water conservation).

	constraints	opportunities
Edaga Arbi
Hawzen
Inticho
Hagere Selam

Fig. 4 Divergence and convergence taking place in different steps of our FGD-process (the vertical dimension reflects estimated richness of ideas and insights).