Technological priorities in rice production among smallholder farmers in Ghana

Figures & data

Table 1 Means and standard deviations of the variables used in the MNP model.

Indicators	Mean	Bundle 1	Bundle 2	Bundle 3	Bundle 4	Bundle 5	Bundle 6	Bundle 7	Bundle 8
Tenure	0.31	0.31	0.31	0.31	0.31	0.31	0.30	0.31	0.31
	(0.46)	(0.46)	(0.46)	(0.46)	(0.46)	(0.46)	(0.46)	(0.46)	(0.46)
Education	5.60	5.60	5.60	5.60	5.60	5.60	6.08	5.60	5.60
	(4.78)	(4.78)	(4.78)	(4.78)	(4.78)	(4.78)	(4.57)	(4.78)	(4.78)
Experience	10.29	10.29	10.29	10.29	10.29	10.29	9.51	10.29	10.29
	(9.36)	(9.36)	(9.36)	(9.36)	(9.36)	(9.36)	(8.55)	(9.36)	(9.36)
Extension	1.27	1.27	1.27	1.27	1.27	1.27	1.22	1.27	1.27
	(1.91)	(1.91)	(0.09)	(1.91)	(1.91)	(1.91)	(1.32)	(1.91)	(1.91)
Demonstration	0.48	0.48	0.48	0.48	0.48	0.48	0.61	0.48	0.48
	(0.50)	(0.50)	(0.23)	(0.50)	(0.50)	(0.50)	(0.49)	(0.50)	(0.50)
Association	0.52	0.52	0.52	0.52	0.52	0.52	0.52	0.52	0.52
	(0.50)	(0.50)	(0.15)	(0.50)	(0.50)	(0.50)	(0.50)	(0.50)	(0.50)
Credit	0.16	0.16	0.16	0.16	0.16	0.16	0.15	0.16	0.16
	(0.37)	(0.37)	(0.22)	(0.37)	(0.37)	(0.37)	(0.36)	(0.37)	(0.37)
Farm size	1.26	1.26	1.26	1.26	1.26	1.26	1.55	1.26	1.26
	(0.83)	(0.83)	(0.09)	(0.83)	(0.83)	(0.83)	(0.95)	(0.83)	(0.83)
Household size	6.66	6.66	6.66	6.66	6.66	6.66	6.73	6.66	6.66
	(3.38)	(3.38)	(0.02)	(3.38)	(3.38)	(3.38)	(3.77)	(3.38)	(3.38)
Input availability	0.26	0.26	0.26	0.26	0.26	0.26	0.06	0.26	0.26
	(0.44)	(0.44)	(0.19)	(0.44)	(0.44)	(0.44)	(0.24)	(0.44)	(0.44)
Commercialization	74.14	74.14	74.14	74.14	74.14	74.14	72.78	74.14	74.14
	(14.26)	(14.26)	(0.01)	(14.26)	(14.26)	(14.26)	(14.15)	(14.26)	(14.26)
Observations	1016	100	232	69	134	81	236	79	86

Note: Figures in parentheses are standard deviations.

Table 2 Joint and marginal probabilities of adoption of technology bundles.

Technology bundle	Joint distributions			Marginal distributions
	Observed	Predicted	Difference	Rice	Fertilizer	Herbicide
(1) None	9.84	3.56	−6.28	9.84	0.00	0.00
(2) Improved rice varieties only	22.83	22.48	−0.35	22.83	0.00	0.00
(3) Fertilizer only	6.79	2.87	−3.92	0.00	6.79	0.00
(4) Herbicide only	13.19	16.58	3.39	0.00	0.00	13.19
(5) Improved rice and fertilizer	7.97	9.82	1.85	7.97	7.97	0.00
(6) Improved rice and herbicide	23.23	31.31	8.08	23.23	0.00	23.23
(7) Fertilizer and herbicide	7.78	9.44	1.66	0.00	7.78	7.78
(8) Improved rice, fertilizer & herbicide	8.37	3.94	−4.43	8.37	8.37	8.37
Total	100.00	100.00	0.00	72.24	30.91	52.57

Table 3 Simultaneity of adoption among rice farmers – a 2*2 contingency table.

Technology type	Choice	Improved rice variety		Herbicide
		Not used	Used	Not used	Used
Fertilizer	Not used	234(61.26)	468(73.82)	332 (68.88)	370 (69.29)
	Used	148(38.74)	166(26.18)	150 (31.12)	164(30.71)
	Odds ratio	1.26		1.01
	χ^2(1)	17.61^***		0.02
Herbicide	Not used	169(44.24)	313(49.37)	–	–
	Used	213(55.76)	321(50.63)	–	–
	Odds ratio	1.08		–
	χ^2(1)	2.51		–

Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.

*** p < 0.01.

Table 4 Simultaneity of adoption among rice farmers – a 3*3 contingency table.

Fertilizer	Herbicide	Improved rice variety		χ^2
		Not used	Used
Note used	Not used	100 (59.17)	232 (74.12)	11.44^***
	Used	69 (40.83)	81 (25.88)
Used	Not used	134 (62.91)	236 (73.52)	6.77^***
	Used	79 (37.08)	85 (26.48)
Overall χ^2(1)		17.61^***

Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages; χ² = Chi-square test.

*** p < 0.01.

Table 5 Parameter estimates from the MNP model.

Indicators	Bundle 1	Bundle 2	Bundle 3	Bundle 4	Bundle 5	Bundle 7	Bundle 8
Tenure	0.13	0.01	−0.08	−0.25	0.21	−0.08	0.47^**
	(0.19)	(0.17)	(0.23)	(0.18)	(0.19)	(0.20)	(0.23)
Education	−0.07^***	0.04^**	−0.14^***	−0.07^***	0.04^**	−0.09^***	−0.01
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
Experience	0.02^*	0.01	0.01	0.01	0.01	0.02	0.00
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Extension	0.23^**	−0.15^*	0.21^*	0.22^***	0.24^***	0.29^***	0.43^***
	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.12)	(0.08)	(0.07)	(0.08)	(0.07)
Demonstration	−1.89^***	0.22	−2.34^***	−1.92^***	−0.79^***	−1.52^***	−0.23
	(0.29)	(0.23)	(0.39)	(0.26)	(0.25)	(0.27)	(0.35)
Association	0.17	−0.03	−0.68^***	0.16	0.21	−0.34^*	0.42^*
	(0.17)	(0.15)	(0.21)	(0.16)	(0.18)	(0.18)	(0.23)
Credit	−0.88^***	−0.02	−0.15	−0.37	0.13	−0.20	1.12^***
	(0.34)	(0.22)	(0.33)	(0.26)	(0.25)	(0.27)	(0.26)
Farm size	−0.29^***	−0.16^*	−1.24^***	−0.32^***	−0.54^***	−0.72^***	−0.89^***
	(0.11)	(0.09)	(0.24)	(0.10)	(0.13)	(0.14)	(0.17)
Household size	−0.04	0.01	−0.12^***	0.02	−0.05	−0.01	0.05
	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.04)	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.04)
Input availability	0.39	2.21^***	1.44^***	0.20	0.64^***	0.89^***	2.30^***
	(0.26)	(0.19)	(0.26)	(0.26)	(0.25)	(0.25)	(0.27)
Commercialization	−0.00	−0.00	0.02^*	−0.01	0.014^*	0.01	0.02^*
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Constant	0.93^*	−0.64	1.33^*	1.31^***	−1.29^*	0.63	−3.63^***
	(0.54)	(0.47)	(0.75)	(0.49)	(0.68)	(0.58)	(0.88)
Observations	1016	1016	1016	1016	1016	1016	1016
Log likelihood	−1487.18
Wald χ^2 (77)	624.27
Prob > chi2	0.00

Note: The base outcome is bundle 6; Figures in parentheses are standard errors.

*** p < 0.01.

** p < 0.05.

* p < 0.10.

Table 6 Marginal effects from the MNP model.

Indicators	Bundle 1	Bundle 2	Bundle 3	Bundle 4	Bundle 5	Bundle 7	Bundle 8
Tenure	0.02	0.00	−0.00	−0.06	0.04	−0.01	0.02^*
	(0.02)	(0.04)	(0.01)	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.01)
Education	−0.01^***	0.02^***	−0.01^***	−0.01^***	0.01^***	−0.01^***	0.00
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Experience	0.00	0.00	0.00	−0.00	0.00	0.00	−0.00
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Extension	0.02^*	−0.09^***	0.01	0.03^**	0.03^***	0.03^***	0.01^***
	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Demonstration	−0.19^***	0.34^***	−0.08^***	−0.25^***	−0.00	−0.12^***	0.02^*
	(0.04)	(0.05)	(0.02)	(0.04)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.01)
Association	0.027	−0.02	−0.03^***	0.03	0.03	−0.06^**	0.02^*
	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.01)	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.01)
Credit	−0.13^***	0.04	−0.00	−0.05	0.05	−0.01	0.05^***
	(0.04)	(0.05)	(0.01)	(0.04)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.02)
Farm size	0.01	0.05^**	−0.05^***	−0.00	−0.04^**	−0.06^***	−0.02^***
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.01)
Household size	−0.01	0.01	−0.01^***	0.01	−0.01	−0.00	0.00^*
	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Input availability	−0.08^**	0.47^***	0.03^**	−0.14^***	−0.04	0.01	0.06^***
	(0.03)	(0.04)	(0.01)	(0.04)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.02)
Commercialization	−0.00	−0.00	0.00^*	−0.00^**	0.00^**	0.00	0.00^*
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Observations	1016	1016	1016	1016	1016	1016	1016

Note: The base outcome is technology bundle 6; figures in parentheses are standard errors.

*** p < 0.01.

* p < 0.10.

Table 7 Predictors showing significant heterogeneous impacts on technology bundles.

Indicators	Bundle 1	Bundle 2	Bundle 3	Bundle 4	Bundle 5	Bundle 7	Bundle 8
Tenure							(+)
Education	(−)	(+)	(−)	(−)	(+)	(−)
Experience	(+)
Extension	(+)	(−)	(+)	(+)	(+)	(+)	(+)
Demonstration	(−)		(−)	(−)	(−)	(−)
Association			(−)			(−)	(+)
Credit	(−)						(+)
Farm size	(−)	(−)	(−)	(−)	(−)	(−)	(−)
Household size			(−)
Input availability		(+)	(+)		(+)	(+)	(+)
Commercialization			(+)		(+)		(+)

Note: Summarized from. ;+ and − indicate statistically significant positive and negative effects, respectively.