Introduction: The Evolution of Environmental Justice Activism, Research, and Scholarship

Abstract

This article argues that there is a long history of environmental racism in American society. The first part of the article briefly discusses some of the environmental practices that discriminated against and negatively impacted people of color. It also discusses the responses of people color to these inequities. The second part of the article examines the rise of the contemporary environmental justice movement. This portion of the essay also looks at the evolution of environmental justice scholarship. It argues that despite controversy over the assertion that race and class are related to the siting patterns of hazardous facilities, most studies support the claim.

Notes

Notes

1. See Yick Wo v. Hopkins (1886), 118 US 356.

2. In re Lee Sing 1890, 43 F. 359 (CCD Cal.), August 25; Federal Reporter (1890). See also Gandolfo v. Hartman 1892, 49 F. 181 (CCSD Cal.), January 25.

3. See Hopkins and Others v. City of Richmond, and Coleman v. Town of Ashland, 1915, 117 Va. 692, 86 SE 139, 1915 Va. September 9; State v. William Darnell 1914, 166 NC 300, 81 SE 338, 1914 NC; Land Development Company of Louisiana v. City of New Orleans, 1926, 13 F. 2d 898, US Dist. July 8; Harden v. City of Atlanta, 1917, 147 Ga. 248, 93 SE 401, August 31; Buchanan v. Warley, 1917, 245 US 60; 38 S.Ct. 16, 62 L.Ed. 149, 1917 US November 5; City of Dallas et al. v. Liberty Annex Corporation, 1927, 19 SW 2d 845, Tex. App.

4. See Buchanan v. Warley, 1917.

5. Three of the Supreme Court justices had to recuse themselves from the case as they owned houses covered by racially restrictive covenants. Shelley et ux. v. Kraemer et ux., 1948, 334 US 1, 68 S.Ct. 836, 92 L.Ed. 1161, 1948 US May 3.

6. See Hurd et ux. v. Hodge et al., 1948, 334 US 24, 68 S.Ct. 847, 92 L.Ed. 1187, 1948 US May 3.

7. See Shelley v. Kraemer, 1948; Sipes v. McGhee, 1947, 316 Mich. 614, 25 N.W. 2d 638, 1947 Mich. January 7.

8. See Hurd et ux. v. Hodge et al., 1948 334 US 24, 68 S.Ct. 847, 92 L.Ed. 1187, 1948 US May 3.

9. See Phillips v. Naff, 1952, 52 NW 2d 158, Mich. Supreme Court.

10. See Olin Corporation v. Insurance Company of North America, 1992, 966 F. 2d 718, US App.; Olin Corporation v. Insurance Company of North America, 1991, 762 F. Supp. 548, 565–66.

11. See Twitty v. State of North Carolina, 1987, 85 NC App. 42, 354 SE 2d 296, 1987 NC App. April 7; Twitty v. State of North Carolina, 1981, 527 F. Supp. 778, 1981 US Dist. November 25; Warren County v. State of North Carolina, 1981, 528 F. Supp. 276, 1981 US Dist. November 25.

12. Other studies examining this are Brown (1995), Cutter (1995), and Fricker and Hengartner (2001).

13. For example, see case studies contained in these edited volumes: Gottlieb (1993), Hofrichter (1993), Bryant and Mohai (1992), Bullard (1993), and LaDuke (1999). See also case-study descriptions, such as Gedicks (1993), LaBalme (1988, pp. 23–30), and Bullard (1990).

14. A more recent study reported similar results: see Quimby, Seyala, and Wolfson (2007).