Effects of health insurance on labour supply: evidence from the health care fund for the poor in Vietnam

Figures & data

Table 1. Part 2 – The number of hours worked – OLS.

	Mahalanobis	NN matching	Kernel (1)	Kernel (2)
Treat	−5.854**	−5.271**	−5.277**	−5.271**
	(2.57)	(2.45)	(2.45)	(2.45)
Year = 2004	−3.803	−4.326*	−4.240*	−4.326*
	(2.35)	(2.25)	(2.24)	(2.25)
Year = 2006	−0.712	−1.162	−1.071	−1.162
	(2.23)	(2.12)	(2.12)	(2.12)
Age squared	−0.040***	−0.040***	−0.040***	−0.040***
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Age	2.801***	2.796***	2.772***	2.796***
	(0.46)	(0.44)	(0.44)	(0.44)
Household size	−0.011	0.115	0.104	0.115
	(0.48)	(0.46)	(0.46)	(0.46)
Dependency ratio	−4.336	−3.590	−3.572	−3.590
	(4.04)	(3.91)	(3.91)	(3.91)
Literacy (dummy)	−0.145	−0.503	−0.310	−0.503
	(3.15)	(2.88)	(2.86)	(2.88)
Marital status (base: married individuals)
-Never married	−4.046	−4.063*	−4.035	−4.063*
	(2.55)	(2.45)	(2.45)	(2.45)
-Widowed/Divorced/Separated	−5.015	−5.583*	−5.679*	−5.583*
	(3.47)	(3.31)	(3.32)	(3.31)
Number of healthcare utilization per year	−3.981***	−4.204***	−4.221***	−4.204***
	(1.04)	(1.03)	(1.03)	(1.03)
Urban (dummy)	2.158	2.995	2.954	2.995
	(8.85)	(8.79)	(8.79)	(8.79)
Belongs to P135 communes	−2.905	−5.312	−5.168	−5.312
	(3.75)	(3.92)	(3.94)	(3.92)
Sector: agri/aquaculture (dummy)	−41.233***	−40.682***	−40.684***	−40.682***
	(2.09)	(2.08)	(2.08)	(2.08)
Engaged in wage employment	0.245	0.231	0.221	0.231
	(1.73)	(1.70)	(1.70)	(1.70)
Constant	161.551***	162.130***	162.292***	162.130***
	(12.52)	(11.83)	(11.78)	(11.83)
N	9,271	9,613	9,618	9,613

Standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered by household. Interview month is controlled for in all regressions.

Kernel (1) and (2) respectively refer to the Kernel matching methods that use the trimming and minima-maxima techniques.

NN matching: Nearest neighbour matching. ${ }^{\ast }$$p<0.1$, ${ }^{\ast \ast }$$p<0.05$, ${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$$p<0.01$

Table 2. Probability of being employed – Linear probability model.

	Mahalanobis	NN matching	Kernel (1)	Kernel (2)
Employed = 1: currently employed
Treat	−0.028${ }^{\ast \ast }$	−0.028${ }^{\ast \ast }$	−0.028${ }^{\ast \ast }$	−0.028${ }^{\ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Year = 2004	−0.004	−0.001	−0.002	−0.001
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Year = 2006	0.001	0.003	0.003	0.003
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Age squared	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Age	0.047${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.045${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.045${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.045${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Household size	−0.002	−0.002	−0.002	−0.002
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Dependency ratio	−0.034${ }^{\ast }$	−0.037${ }^{\ast }$	−0.036${ }^{\ast }$	−0.037${ }^{\ast }$
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
Literacy (dummy)	0.077${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.076${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.075${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.076${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
Marital status (base: married individuals)
-Never married	−0.069${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.075${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.074${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.075${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.01)	(0.02)
-Widowed/Divorced/Separated	−0.056${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.057${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.057${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.057${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
Number of healthcare utilization per year	−0.008${ }^{\ast }$	−0.008${ }^{\ast }$	−0.008${ }^{\ast }$	−0.008${ }^{\ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Urban (dummy)	−0.005	−0.003	−0.002	−0.003
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
Belongs to P135 communes	−0.008	−0.003	−0.005	−0.003
	(0.02)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Sector: agri/aquaculture (dummy)	0.250${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.257${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.257${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.257${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Engaged in wage employment	0.213${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.212${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.212${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.212${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Constant	−0.197${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.153${ }^{\ast \ast }$	−0.152${ }^{\ast \ast }$	−0.153${ }^{\ast \ast }$
	(0.06)	(0.06)	(0.06)	(0.06)
N	10,484	10,869	10,873	10,869

Standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered by household. Interview month is controlled for in all regressions.

Kernel (1) and (2) respectively refer to the Kernel matching methods that use the trimming and minima-maxima techniques.

NN matching: Nearest neighbour matching. ${ }^{\ast }$ $p<0.1$, ${ }^{\ast \ast }$ $p<0.05$, ${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$ $p<0.01$

Table 3. The number of hours worked per month, by poverty status and by region.

	Poverty status		Region
	Non-poor	Poor	Rural	Urban
Treat	−5.644${ }^{\ast }$	−9.747	−8.267${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	1.883
	(2.89)	(7.80)	(2.55)	(7.13)
Iear = 2004	−2.172	−5.374	−5.999${ }^{\ast \ast }$	5.960
	(2.59)	(7.06)	(2.63)	(5.55)
Year = 2006	1.198	−8.498	−2.053	5.856
	(2.43)	(9.09)	(2.49)	(5.05)
Age squared	−0.043${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.018	−0.040${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.051${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Age	2.947${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	1.385	2.719${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	3.735${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.50)	(1.06)	(0.49)	(1.19)
Household size	0.259	−0.887	0.027	0.079
	(0.56)	(1.43)	(0.54)	(1.12)
Dependency ratio	−7.715${ }^{\ast }$	12.495	−4.007	−5.843
	(4.20)	(21.42)	(4.53)	(8.62)
Literacy (dummy)	−2.399	5.639	0.159	0.262
	(3.90)	(6.01)	(3.17)	(11.51)
Marital status (base: married individuals)
-Never married	−4.187	−0.767	−2.027	−7.881
	(2.80)	(7.40)	(2.86)	(5.19)
-Widowed/Divorced/Separated	−3.383	−11.024	−6.026	−1.882
	(3.71)	(15.71)	(3.72)	(8.25)
Number of healthcare utilization per year	−3.653${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−8.970${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−4.763${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.753
	(1.10)	(3.40)	(1.10)	(2.52)
Urban (dummy)	3.545	0.000
	(9.07)	(.)
Belongs to P135 communes	−6.208	15.758	−4.211	16.531
	(3.97)	(11.65)	(3.81)	(13.68)
Sector: agri/aquaculture (dummy)	−42.824${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−24.328${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−39.664${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−46.872${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(2.24)	(8.20)	(2.26)	(5.64)
Engaged in wage employment	0.315	2.811	2.806	−7.710${ }^{\ast }$
	(1.87)	(4.81)	(1.87)	(4.11)
Constant	149.973${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	184.170${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	164.711${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	152.046${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(13.76)	(38.65)	(13.65)	(29.42)
N	8,336	935	7,201	2,070

Standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered by household.

Interview month is included to control for the seasonal effect. ${ }^{\ast }$ $p<0.1$, ${ }^{\ast \ast }$ $p<0.05$, ${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$ $p<0.01$

Table 4. The probability of employment, by poverty status and by region.

	Poverty status		Region
	Non-poor	Poor	Rural	Urban
Treat	−0.019	−0.041	−0.038${ }^{\ast \ast }$	0.024
	(0.01)	(0.05)	(0.01)	(0.03)
Year = 2004	−0.004	−0.047${ }^{\ast }$	0.002	−0.031
	(0.01)	(0.03)	(0.01)	(0.02)
Year = 2006	0.000	−0.095${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.005	−0.016
	(0.01)	(0.03)	(0.01)	(0.02)
Age squared	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.000${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.000${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Age	0.049${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.021${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.037${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.072${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.00)	(0.01)
Household size	−0.005${ }^{\ast }$	0.008	−0.004	0.001
	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.00)	(0.01)
Dependency ratio	−0.030	−0.010	−0.032	−0.045
	(0.02)	(0.08)	(0.02)	(0.04)
Literacy (dummy)	0.096${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.016	0.069${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.110${ }^{\ast \ast }$
	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.06)
Marital status (base: married individuals)
Never married	−0.068${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.098${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.080${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.056${ }^{\ast }$
	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.03)
Widowed/Divorced/Separated	−0.057${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.124${ }^{\ast }$	−0.061${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.031
	(0.02)	(0.07)	(0.02)	(0.04)
Number of healthcare utilization per year	−0.011${ }^{\ast \ast }$	0.014	−0.003	−0.019${ }^{\ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.00)	(0.01)
Urban (dummy)	0.002	0.000
	(0.03)	(.)
Belongs to P135 communes	−0.015	−0.011	−0.013	0.033
	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.04)
Sector: agri/aquaculture (dummy)	0.247${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.320${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.250${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.244${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.04)	(0.01)	(0.03)
Engaged in wage employment	0.223${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.129${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.165${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.333${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.01)	(0.02)
Constant	−0.264${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.383${ }^{\ast \ast }$	−0.004	−0.739${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.07)	(0.15)	(0.07)	(0.16)
N	9,495	989	7,918	2,566

Standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered by household.

Interview month is included to control for the seasonal effect. ${ }^{\ast }$ $p<0.1$, ${ }^{\ast \ast }$ $p<0.05$, ${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$ $p<0.01$.

Table

			2002			2004			2006
Eligibility	No	Yes	Total	No	Yes	Total	No	Yes	Total
Whole population
Uncovered	96.76	83.21	92.22	94.26	66.34	87.48	88.64	50.01	81.70
Covered	3.24	16.79	7.78	5.74	33.66	12.52	11.36	49.99	18.30
Working-age population
Uncovered	97.04	84.07	93.16	94.39	65.86	88.28	91.48	50.87	84.84
Covered	2.96	15.93	6.84	5.61	34.14	11.72	8.52	49.13	15.16

Eligibility is based on Decision 139/2002/QD-TTg. This coverage is sampling weighted.

Table

	Mahalanobis	NN matching	Kernel (1)	Kernel (2)
Employed = 1: currently employed
Age	0.243${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.233${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.234${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.233${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Age squared	−0.003${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.003${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.003${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.003${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Household size	−0.005	−0.001	−0.001	−0.001
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Dependency ratio	0.257${ }^{\ast \ast }$	0.264${ }^{\ast \ast }$	0.271${ }^{\ast \ast }$	0.264${ }^{\ast \ast }$
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)
Literacy (dummy)	0.306${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.308${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.299${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.308${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)
Marital status (base: married individuals)
-Never married	−0.607${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.637${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.629${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.637${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.08)	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.07)
-Widowed/Divorced/Separated	−0.501${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.493${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.496${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.493${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)
Relation to the household head (base: head)
-Spouse	−0.342${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.344${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.344${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.344${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.06)	(0.06)	(0.06)	(0.06)
-Child	−0.089	−0.122	−0.123	−0.122
	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)
-Others	−0.603${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.675${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.666${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.675${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.11)	(0.10)	(0.10)	(0.10)
Number of healthcare utilization per year	−0.083${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.082${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.081${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.082${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
Urban (dummy)	−0.493${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.482${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.482${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.482${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)
Belongs to P135 communes	0.262${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.289${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.297${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.289${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.07)
Constant	−2.578${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−2.361${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−2.378${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−2.361${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.32)	(0.30)	(0.30)	(0.30)
N	10,482	10,867	10,871	10,867

Standard errors in parentheses. ${ }^{\ast }$ $p<0.1$, ${ }^{\ast \ast }$ $p<0.05$, ${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$ $p<0.01$.

NN matching: Nearest neighbour matching.

Kernel (1) and (2) refers to Kernel matching methods using the trimming and minima-maxima techniques.

Table

	Mahalanobis	NN matching	Kernel (1)	Kernel (2)
Treat	−5.854${ }^{\ast }$	−5.271${ }^{\ast }$	−5.277${ }^{\ast }$	−5.271${ }^{\ast }$
	(3.13)	(3.05)	(3.05)	(3.05)
Year = 2004	−3.803	−4.326	−4.240	−4.326
	(2.78)	(2.66)	(2.66)	(2.66)
Year = 2006	−0.712	−1.162	−1.071	−1.162
	(2.67)	(2.55)	(2.55)	(2.55)
Age squared	−0.040${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.040${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.040${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.040${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Age	2.801${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	2.796${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	2.772${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	2.796${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.50)	(0.48)	(0.48)	(0.48)
Household size	−0.011	0.115	0.104	0.115
	(0.57)	(0.55)	(0.54)	(0.55)
Dependency ratio	−4.336	−3.590	−3.572	−3.590
	(4.73)	(4.58)	(4.58)	(4.58)
Literacy (dummy)	−0.145	−0.503	−0.310	−0.503
	(3.62)	(3.26)	(3.24)	(3.26)
Marital status (base: married individuals)
Never married	−4.046	−4.063	−4.035	−4.063
	(2.79)	(2.68)	(2.67)	(2.68)
Widowed/Divorced/Separated	−5.015	−5.583	−5.679	−5.583
	(3.82)	(3.65)	(3.66)	(3.65)
Number of healthcare utilization per year	−3.981${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−4.204${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−4.221${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−4.204${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(1.11)	(1.09)	(1.09)	(1.09)
Urban (dummy)	2.158	2.995	2.954	2.995
	(9.83)	(9.66)	(9.66)	(9.66)
Belongs to P135 communes	−2.905	−5.312	−5.168	−5.312
	(4.43)	(4.56)	(4.64)	(4.56)
Sector: agri/aquaculture (dummy)	−41.233${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−40.682${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−40.684${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−40.682${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(2.42)	(2.42)	(2.42)	(2.42)
Engaged in wage employment	0.245	0.231	0.221	0.231
	(1.98)	(1.96)	(1.95)	(1.96)
Constant	161.551${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	162.130${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	162.292${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	162.130${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(14.19)	(13.26)	(13.23)	(13.26)
N	9,271	9,613	9,618	9,613

Standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered by commune. Interview month is controlled for in all regressions.

Kernel (1) and (2) respectively refer to the Kernel matching methods that use the trimming and minima-maxima techniques.

NN matching: Nearest neighbour matching. ${ }^{\ast }$ $p<0.1$, ${ }^{\ast \ast }$ $p<0.05$, ${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$ $p<0.01$

Table

	Mahalanobis	NN matching	Kernel (1)	Kernel (2)
Employed = 1: currently employed
Treat	−0.028${ }^{\ast }$	−0.028${ }^{\ast }$	−0.028${ }^{\ast }$	−0.028${ }^{\ast }$
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
Year = 2004	−0.004	−0.001	−0.002	−0.001
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Year = 2006	0.001	0.003	0.003	0.003
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Age squared	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Age	0.047${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.045${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.045${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.045${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Household size	−0.002	−0.002	−0.002	−0.002
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Dependency ratio	−0.034	−0.037	−0.036	−0.037
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
Literacy (dummy)	0.077${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.076${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.075${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.076${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
Marital status (base: married individuals)
-Never married	−0.069${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.075${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.074${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.075${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
-Widowed/Divorced/Separated	−0.056${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.057${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.057${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.057${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
Number of healthcare utilization per year	−0.008${ }^{\ast }$	−0.008${ }^{\ast }$	−0.008${ }^{\ast }$	−0.008${ }^{\ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Urban (dummy)	−0.005	−0.003	−0.002	−0.003
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
Belongs to P135 communes	−0.008	−0.003	−0.005	−0.003
	(0.02)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Sector: agri/aquaculture (dummy)	0.250${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.257${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.257${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.257${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Engaged in wage employment	0.213${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.212${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.212${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.212${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Constant	−0.197${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.153${ }^{\ast \ast }$	−0.152${ }^{\ast \ast }$	−0.153${ }^{\ast \ast }$
	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.07)
N	10,484	10,869	10,873	10,869

Standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered by commune. Interview month is controlled for in all regressions.

Kernel (1) and (2) respectively refer to the Kernel matching methods that use the trimming and minima-maxima techniques.

NN matching: Nearest neighbour matching. ${ }^{\ast }$ $p<0.1$, ${ }^{\ast \ast }$ $p<0.05$, ${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$ $p<0.01$

Table

	Poverty status		Region
	Non-poor	Poor	Rural	Urban
Treat	−5.644	−9.747	−8.267${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	1.883
	(3.49)	(9.51)	(3.16)	(8.44)
Year = 2004	−2.172	−5.374	−5.999${ }^{\ast }$	5.960
	(3.01)	(7.82)	(3.18)	(6.21)
Year = 2006	1.198	−8.498	−2.053	5.856
	(2.90)	(9.60)	(3.01)	(5.91)
Age squared	−0.043${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.018	−0.040${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.051${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Age	2.947${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	1.385	2.719${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	3.735${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.55)	(1.05)	(0.55)	(1.18)
Household size	0.259	−0.887	0.027	0.079
	(0.68)	(1.81)	(0.65)	(1.29)
Dependency ratio	−7.715	12.495	−4.007	−5.843
	(4.87)	(25.60)	(5.25)	(10.08)
Literacy (dummy)	−2.399	5.639	0.159	0.262
	(4.55)	(6.58)	(3.53)	(14.27)
Marital status (base: married individuals)
-Never married	−4.187	−0.767	−2.027	−7.881
	(3.12)	(7.67)	(3.16)	(5.53)
-Widowed/Divorced/Separated	−3.383	−11.024	−6.026	−1.882
	(4.11)	(17.07)	(3.96)	(9.29)
Number of healthcare utilization per year	−3.653${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−8.970${ }^{\ast \ast }$	−4.763${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.753
	(1.16)	(3.60)	(1.13)	(2.84)
Urban (dummy)	3.545	0.000
	(10.09)	(.)
Belongs to P135 communes	−6.208	15.758	−4.211	16.531
	(4.46)	(12.95)	(4.52)	(12.53)
Sector: agri/aquaculture (dummy)	−42.824${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−24.328${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−39.664${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−46.872${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(2.57)	(9.06)	(2.64)	(6.27)
Engaged in wage employment	0.315	2.811	2.806	−7.710
	(2.15)	(4.76)	(2.14)	(4.82)
Constant	149.973${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	184.170${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	164.711${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	152.046${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(15.74)	(39.77)	(15.51)	(32.87)
N	8,336	935	7,201	2,070

Standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered by commune.

Interview month is included to control for the seasonal effect. ${ }^{\ast }$ $p<0.1$, ${ }^{\ast \ast }$ $p<0.05$, ${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$ $p<0.01$

Table

	Poverty status		Region
	Non-poor	Poor	Rural	Urban
Treat	−0.019	−0.041	−0.038${ }^{\ast \ast }$	0.024
	(0.02)	(0.05)	(0.02)	(0.04)
Year = 2004	−0.004	−0.047	0.002	−0.031
	(0.01)	(0.03)	(0.01)	(0.02)
Year = 2006	0.000	−0.095${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.005	−0.016
	(0.01)	(0.03)	(0.01)	(0.02)
Age squared	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.000${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.000${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.001${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Age	0.049${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.021${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.037${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.072${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.00)	(0.01)
Household size	−0.005	0.008	−0.004	0.001
	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.00)	(0.01)
Dependency ratio	−0.030	−0.010	−0.032	−0.045
	(0.02)	(0.10)	(0.02)	(0.05)
Literacy (dummy)	0.096${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.016	0.069${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.110${ }^{\ast \ast }$
	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.05)
Marital status (base: married individuals)
-Never married	−0.068${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.098${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.080${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.056
	(0.02)	(0.04)	(0.02)	(0.04)
-Widowed/Divorced/Separated	−0.057${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.124${ }^{\ast }$	−0.061${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.031
	(0.02)	(0.07)	(0.02)	(0.04)
Number of healthcare utilization per year	−0.011${ }^{\ast \ast }$	0.014	−0.003	−0.019${ }^{\ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.00)	(0.01)
Urban (dummy)	0.002	0.000
	(0.03)	(.)
Belongs to P135 communes	−0.015	−0.011	−0.013	0.033
	(0.02)	(0.04)	(0.02)	(0.03)
Sector: agri/aquaculture (dummy)	0.247${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.320${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.250${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.244${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.05)	(0.01)	(0.03)
Engaged in wage employment	0.223${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.129${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.165${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.333${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.01)	(0.02)
Constant	−0.264${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	0.383${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$	−0.004	−0.739${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$
	(0.07)	(0.15)	(0.07)	(0.17)
N	9,495	989	7,918	2,566

Standard errors in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered by commune.

Interview month is included to control for the seasonal effect. ${ }^{\ast }$ $p<0.1$, ${ }^{\ast \ast }$ $p<0.05$, ${ }^{\ast \ast \ast }$ $p<0.01$

Table

Sample	Mean Bias	Median Bias	Variance Ratio
Mahalanobis matching
Unmatched	35.4	37.6	25
Matched	0.0	0.0	0
Number of off-support observations			402
PSM-Kernel algorithm, minima-maxima common support
Unmatched	35.4	37.6	25
Matched	3.5	3.2	50
Number of off-support observations			17
PSM – Kernel algorithm, trimming at 2 per cent for common support
Unmatched	35.4	37.6	25
Matched	3.7	3.1	50
Number of off-support observations			13
PSM – Nearest neighbour matching algorithm
Unmatched	35.4	37.6	25
Matched	3.7	3.8	50
Number of off-support observations			17

Table

	Mean		TTest
Variable	Treated	Control	T statistic	P value	Variance ratio
Age	35.909	35.879	0.03	0.975	1.00
Male (dummy)	.50758	.50758	−0.00	1.000	1.00
Household size	4.5909	4.5909	0.00	1.000	1.00
Dependency ratio	.37334	.37334	−0.00	1.000	1.00
Literacy (dummy)	1	1	.	.	.
Marital status	1.8864	1.8864	−0.00	1.000	1.00
Female headed household	.03788	.03788	0.00	1.000	1.00
Poverty status	.22348	.22348	−0.00	1.000	1.00
Belongs to P135 communes	.14394	.14394	−0.00	1.000	1.00
Belongs to P168 regions	0	0	.	.	.
Belongs to P186 regions	.01894	.01894	0.00	1.000	1.00
Work sector: agriculture (dummy)	.66288	.66288	−0.00	1.000	1.00

*denotes ‘of concern’, i.e. variance ratio in [0.5, 0.8) or (1.25, 2].

Variance ratio is bad if below 0.5 or above 2.

Table

	Mean		TTest
Variable	Treated	Control	T statistic	P value	Variance ratio
Age	35.82	36.237	−0.61	0.545	0.97
Male (dummy)	.48844	.48998	−0.06	0.956	1.00
Household size	5.4206	5.3032	1.02	0.307	1.41
Dependency ratio	.37816	.38207	−0.35	0.729	1.00
Literacy (dummy)	.88906	.8775	0.65	0.517	1.02
Marital status	1.8521	1.8544	−0.09	0.930	1.18
Female headed HH (dummy)	.0678	.05316	1.11	0.269	1.30
Poverty status	.42835	.44992	−0.78	0.434	1.11
Belongs to P135 communes	.36055	.3879	−1.02	0.309	1.00
Belongs to P168 regions	.08629	.08128	0.33	0.745	0.99
Belongs to P186 regions	.21109	.20609	0.22	0.824	1.00
Work sector: agriculture	.72111	.69145	1.17	0.241	1.02

*denotes ‘of concern’, i.e. variance ratio in [0.5, 0.8) or (1.25, 2].

Variance ratio is bad if below 0.5 or above 2.

Table

	Mean		TTest
Variable	Treated	Control	T statistic	P value	Variance ratio
Age	35.82	36.62	−1.16	0.247	0.98
Male (dummy)	.48844	.49268	−0.15	0.879	1.00
Household size	5.4206	5.2884	1.16	0.245	1.54
Dependency ratio	.37816	.3754	0.24	0.808	0.95
Literacy (dummy)	.88906	.8804	0.49	0.625	0.99
Marital status	1.8521	1.8526	−0.02	0.984	1.22
Female headed HH (dummy)	.0678	.05222	1.18	0.238	1.29
Poverty status	.42835	.44216	−0.50	0.616	1.05
Belongs to P135 communes	.36055	.37573	−0.57	0.571	0.99
Belongs to P168 regions	.08629	.08062	0.37	0.712	1.00
Belongs to P186 regions	.21109	.21161	−0.02	0.982	1.00
Work sector: agriculture	.72111	.68208	1.54	0.125	0.97

*denotes ‘of concern’, i.e. variance ratio in [0.5, 0.8) or (1.25, 2].

Variance ratio is bad if below 0.5 or above 2.

Table

	Mean		TTest
Variable	Treated	Control	T statistic	P value	Variance ratio
Age	35.778	36.486	−1.03	0.303	0.95
Male (dummy)	.48698	.49181	−0.17	0.862	1.00
Household size	5.4686	5.2881	1.58	0.114	1.46
Dependency ratio	.38109	.37569	0.48	0.633	0.95
Literacy (dummy)	.88668	.8787	0.45	0.654	0.99
Marital status	1.8499	1.8498	0.01	0.996	1.20
Female headed HH (dummy)	.06585	.0519	1.07	0.285	1.28
Poverty	.43798	.4517	−0.50	0.618	1.05
Belongs to P135 communes	.36753	.38322	−0.59	0.559	1.00
Belongs to P168 regions	.09954	.09539	0.25	0.800	1.00
Belongs to P186 regions	.20368	.20143	0.10	0.920	1.00
Work sector: agriculture	.72,435	.68,478	1.57	0.117	0.99

*denotes ‘of concern’, i.e. variance ratio in [0.5, 0.8) or (1.25, 2].

Variance ratio is bad if below 0.5 or above 2.

1. Variance ratios of disturbance - Kernel matching using the minima-maxima technique

2. Variance ratios of disturbance - Kernel matching using the trimming technique

3. Variance ratios of disturbance - Mahalanobis matching

4. Variance ratios of disturbance - Nearest neighbour matching