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Methods, Models, and GIS

Downscaling Environmental Justice Analysis: Determinants of Household-Level Hazardous Air Pollutant Exposure in Greater Houston

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Pages 684-703 | Received 01 Aug 2014, Accepted 01 Feb 2015, Published online: 01 Jul 2015
 

Abstract

Environmental justice (EJ) research has relied on ecological analyses of coarse-scale areal units to determine whether particular populations are disproportionately burdened by toxic risks. This article advances quantitative EJ research by (1) examining whether statistical associations found for geographic units translate to relationships at the household level; (2) testing competing explanations for distributional injustices never before investigated; (3) examining adverse health implications of hazardous air pollutant (HAP) exposures; and (4) applying an underutilized statistical technique appropriate for geographically clustered data. Our study makes these advances by using generalized estimating equations to examine distributive environmental inequities in the Greater Houston (Texas) metropolitan area, based on primary household-level survey data and census block–level cancer risk estimates of HAP exposure from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. In addition to main statistical effects, interaction effects are modeled to examine whether minority racial or ethnic status modifies the effects of other variables on HAP cancer risk. In terms of main effects, Hispanic and black status as well as the desire to live close to public transit exhibit robust associations with HAP cancer risk. Interaction results reveal that homeownership and homophily (i.e., the desire to live among people culturally similar to oneself) are associated with higher HAP cancer risk among Hispanics and blacks but with lower risk among whites. Disproportionate risks experienced by Hispanics and blacks are attributable neither to dampened risk perceptions nor the desire to live close to work. These findings have implications for EJ research and practice in Greater Houston and elsewhere.

环境正义(EJ)研究,仰赖粗略尺度的面积单位之生态分析,以判定特定人口是否不成比例地承受毒害风险。本文透过下列方式,推进定量的环境正义研究:(1)检视地理单元发现的统计关联性,是否转译至家户层级的关係;(2)验证过去从未探讨过的对分配不正义的各种竞争性解释;(3)检视有害的空气污染(HAP)暴露所带来的健康危害之意涵;(4)将未充分利用的统计技术,应用至适当的地理群聚数据。我们的研究,根据一手的家户层级调查数据,以及美国环境保护部的普查街廓层级的HAP暴露质之癌症风险评估,运用广义估计方程式,检视休士顿大都会地区(德州)的分布环境不正义,以推进上述之发展。除了主要的统计效果之外,本研究亦模式化互动效果,以检视少数种族或族裔身份,是否会改变其他变项之于HAP癌症风险的效应。就主效应而言,西班牙裔与黑人身份,及其邻近大众运输而居的期望,展现出与HAP癌症风险的强大关联性。互动结果显示出,家户所有权与趋同(例如与文化相近的人群共居之期望),与西班牙裔和黑人较高的HAP癌症风险相关,但与白人较低的风险有关。西班牙裔与黑人所经历的不成比例的风险,不可归因于消沉的风险意识,抑或是紧邻工作地而居之期望。这些发现,对于大休士顿地区与其他地方的环境正义研究及实践具有意涵。

La investigación de justicia ambiental (EJ) se ha apoyado en análisis ecológicos de unidades espaciales a escala gruesa para determinar si ciertas poblaciones están desproporcionalmente cargadas de riesgo tóxico. Este artículo avanza en la investigación cuantitativa de la EJ, (1) examinando si las asociaciones estadísticas establecidas para unidades geográficas se traducen en relaciones a nivel de hogares; (2) poniendo a prueba explicaciones alternativas de injusticias distributivas nunca antes investigadas; (3) examinando las implicaciones adversas a la salud por exposición a contaminantes aéreos peligrosos (HAP); y (4) aplicando una técnica estadística poco utilizada pero apropiada para datos apiñados geográficamente. Nuestro estudio contribuye estos avances mediante el uso de ecuaciones de cálculo generalizadas para examinar la distribución de inequidades ambientales en el área metropolitana de la Gran Houston (Texas), con base en datos de levantamiento primario a nivel de hogares y estimativos de riesgo de cáncer a nivel de manzanas censales de la Agencia de Protección Ambiental de los EE.UU por exposición a los HAP. Además de los principales efectos estadísticos, los efectos de la interacción son modelados para examinar si el estatus étnico o de minoría racial modifica los efectos de otras variables sobre el riesgo de cáncer por HAP. En términos de los efectos principales, el estatus de hispánico o negro, lo mismo que el deseo de vivir cerca del tránsito público, presentan una robusta asociación con el riesgo de cáncer por HAP. Los resultados de la interacción revelan que la propiedad de la casa y la homofilia (i.e., el deseo de vivir entre gente culturalmente similar a uno mismo) están asociadas con un alto grado de riesgo de cáncer por HAP entre hispánicos y negros, pero con riesgo más bajo entre los blancos. Los riesgos desproporcionados que experimentan hispánicos y negros no son atribuibles ni a percepciones reducidas del riesgo ni al deseo de vivir cerca del trabajo. Estos descubrimientos tienen implicaciones para la investigación y práctica de la EJ en la Gran Houston y en otras partes.

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Corrigendum

Notes

1. This study emerged from a larger mixed-method project, which included semistructured interviews with a subset of fifty Greater Houston survey participants. Qualitative data analysis is not integrated into this article. Instead, we refer to qualitative findings where they have informed the quantitative analysis.

2. The 33 percent response rate is for the total sample, which included participants from both Greater Houston and the Greater Miami MSA. We applied the same sampling strategy in Miami.

3. Compared to Citation2010 U.S. decennial Census and 2007–2011 American Community Survey estimates for Greater Houston, our sample is generally representative in terms of household income (median = $45,000 and M = $64,065 vs. Houston MSA median = $56,876), percentage of adult blacks (19.7 vs. 16.7 percent), and percentage of adult whites (48.9 vs. 43.5 percent); it somewhat underrepresents adult Hispanics (21.5 vs. 31.6 percent).

4. Geographic quadrants correspond with those used to implement the two-stage cluster sampling design. Eight median year of housing construction categories correspond with the response options for an American Community Survey instrument housing item (“About when was this building first built?”): 2000 or later, 1990 to 1999, 1980 to 1989, 1970 to 1979, 1960 to 1969, 1950 to 1959, 1940 to 1949, and 1939 or earlier (U.S. Bureau of the Census Citation2011).

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