Density, laying date, breeding success and diet of Black Kites Milvus migrans govinda in the city of Delhi (India)

Figures & data

Figure 1. Temporal frequency of laying dates in the Black Kite population of Delhi (India) in 2013 (n = 65).

Figure 2. Mean temperature, monthly rainfall and Black Kite laying frequency in Delhi (weather data from India Meteorological Department 2013).

Table 1. Diet of breeding Black Kites in Delhi, India (2012–2013), as estimated by food remains collected inside and under the nest.

Prey category	Frequency by number (%)	Frequency by mass (%)
Fish^a	0.8	1.0
Amphibians^b	0.7	0.7
Reptiles^c	0.7	0.3
Birds	24.6	31.9
(i) Rock Pigeon (Columba livia)	13.1	16.2
(ii) Collared Dove (Streptopelia decaocto)	4.1	3.3
(iii) Other birds^d	7.4	12.4
Mammals^e	9.8	20.2
Scavenged meat^f	63.4	45.9
(i) Meat scraps	47.1	35.6
(ii) Domestic chicken	11.5	6.1
(iii) Cattle^g	4.1	3.5
(iv) Fish^h	0.7	0.7

^aUnidentified fish (n = 1).

^bIndian bull-frog (n = 1).

^cCommon house gecko (n = 1).

^dMoorhen (Gallinula chloropus) (n = 1), Indian Roller (Coracias benghalensis) (n = 1), Unidentified birds (n = 7).

^eMammals which were unlikely to be consumed as carrion. Includes: Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) (n = 11) and Palm squirrel (Funambulus pennantii) (n = 1).

^fPrey items that were considered to have been collected as carrion from local rubbish dumps and slaughterhouses.

^gBuffalo (n = 2), Goat (n = 3).

^hLarge unidentified fish skin, likely from fish market.

Table 2. Breeding density and nest spacing of Black Kite populations in Europe and India (Delhi), 1966–2013.

Area (period)	Habitat	Density (pr/10 km^2) (n)	NDD in meters (n)
Delhi, India (2013)^17	U	150 (244)	133 (207)
Delhi, India (1967–1969)^3	U	161 (∼560)	–
NZP, India (1979)^16	U	250 (18–21)	–
NZP, India (2013)^17	U	264 (70)	–
Matas Gordas, Spain (1987–1989)^10	M	70–150 (21–45)	–
Matas Gordas, Spain (1992–2000)^15	M	100.8 (515)	–
Doñana, Spain (1981–1984)^8	M	26.7 (80)	206 (47)^a
RBD, Spain (1989–2000)^15	M	15.1 (1059)	–
Lac Leman, Switzerland (1975–1990)^11	F	10.1 (319)	–
Neuchatel, Switzerland (1968)^5	FL	7.1 (337)	–
Lorraine, France (1966)^1	WP	4.5 (66)	–
Rhône Plain, France (1970)^5	RP	60.9 (140)	–
Limousin, France (1976–1978)^4	PW	1.0 (21)	–
Lake Lugano, Italy (1992–1996)^13	WL	2.4–3.8 (27–41)	441 (175)
Lake Lugano, Italy (1992–2003)^15	WL	2.9 (365)	–
Lake Maggiore, Italy (1996–2000)^14	WL	−(24)	–
Lake Como, Italy (1996–2000)^14	WL	4.7 (40)	–
Lake Iseo, Italy (1996–2000)^14	WL	3.5 (48)	–
Lake Idro, Italy (1997–2001)^14	WL	6.7 (37)	–
Lake Garda, Italy (1997–2000)^14	WL	1.5 (18)	–
Sarca Valley, Italy (1997–2003)^14	WL	1.3 (88)	–
Castelporziano, Italy (1991–1992)^9	WF	3.3 (16)	103 (16)^b
Monti della Tolfa, Italy (1973–1980)^7	WP	0.5 (42)	–
Constance Lake, Germany (1968–1969)^2	FL	1.9–2.2 (25–30)	–
Drömling, Germany (1993–1994)^12	F	0.7 (8)	2330 (8)^c
Brandenburg, Germany (1979)^6	F	0.7 (215)	–

Notes: Density was expressed as territorial pairs/10 km² for clarity of presentation. The 2013 data from the current study are presented twice in the table: (i) for the whole study area, i.e. representative of the whole Delhi population; and (b) for the high-density sector of the New Delhi National Zoological Park (NZP), in order to make them comparable to historical data from the 1970s by Malhotra (2007). Habitats are U, Urban; M, Marshland; FL, Farmland and Lake; WL, Woodland and Lake; F, Farmland; WP, Woodland and Pasture; WF, Woodland and Farmland; FL, Farmland and Lake; PW, Pasture and Woodland; RP, River Plain.

^aEstimate from Bustamante & Hiraldo (1990), for the period 1985–1988.

^bA single colony.

^cCalculated from the published map.

¹Thiollay (1967), ²Heckenroth (1970), ³Galushin (1971), ⁴Nore (1979), ⁵Sermet (1980), ⁶Fiuczynski (1981), ⁷Petretti & Petretti (1981), ⁸Hiraldo et al. (1990), ⁹De Giacomo et al. (1993), ¹⁰Viñuela et al. (1994), ¹¹Henrioux & Henrioux (1995), ¹²Seelig et al. (1996), ¹³Sergio & Boto (1999), ¹⁴Sergio et al. (2003), ¹⁵Sergio et al. (2005), ¹⁶Malhotra (2007), ¹⁷This study.

Table 3. Productivity of Black Kite populations in Europe and Asia, 1966–2013.

					Mean number of fledged young
Area (period)	Habitat (n)	Clutch size	Hatching success^a (eggs)	Breeding success (%)	Territorial pair	Breeding pair	Successful pair
Delhi, India (2013)^11	U (151)	2.09 (100)^b	68% (157)^b	48	0.73	1.09 (100)^b	1.52 (72)^b
NZP, India (1973–1976)^2	U (45)	2.3 (60)^b	55% (102)^b	–	0.98	–	–
NZP, India (2013)^11	U(46)	2.04 (36)	62% (55)^b	59	0.78	0.95 (38)^b	1.44 (25)^b
RBD, Spain (1989–2000)^10	WL(1059)	2.02	67.4 (416)	41	0.59	0.71	1.43
Matas Gordas, Spain (1992–2000)^10	GM(515)	2.12	70.3 (232)	44	0.61	0.85	1.46
Germany (1992–1995)^7c	− (599)	–	–	79	1.63	–	2.07 (471)^b
Limousin, France (1976–1978)^3	PW (22)	–	–	68	–	1.32	1.93 (15)^b
Berlin, Germany (1940–1979)^4	F (215)	–	–	62	1.20		1.90 (133)^b
Lake Lugano, Italy (1992–1996)^9	WL (143)	2.29 (42)^b	84% (96)^b	55	0.97	1.1 (95)^b	1.78 (78)^b
Lake Lugano, Italy (1992–2003)^10	WL (315)	2.3	74 (88)	50	0.90	1.24	1.80
Lake Maggiore, Italy (1996–2000)^10	WL (30)	–	–	50	0.87	–	1.73
Lake Como, Italy (1996–2000)^10	WL (40)	–	–	48	0.75	–	1.58
Lake Iseo, Italy (1996–2000)^10	WL (48)	–	–	38	0.48	–	1.10
Lake Idro, Italy (1997–2001)^10	WL (37)	–	–	59	1.05	–	1.63
Lake Garda, Italy (1997–2000)^10	WL (18)	–	–	44	0.83	–	2.14
Sarca Valley, Italy (1997–2003)^10	WL (88)	–	–	40	0.63	–	1.62
Slovakia (1975–1989)^5	− (162)	2.98 (44)^b	–	–	–	2.31	–
Lac Leman, Switzerland (1975–1990)^8	FL (165)	2.25	–	–	–	2.02	–
Lorraine, France (1966)^1	WP (66)	2.26 (45)^b	–	–	1.32	1.58 (55)^b	–
Nagasaki, Japan (1983–1986)^6	FP (32)	2.18 (28)^b	79% (61)^b	75	1.00	1.14 (28)^b	1.33 (24)^b

Notes: The 2013 data from the current study are presented twice in the table: (i) for the whole study area, i.e. representative of the whole Delhi population; and (ii) for the high-density sector of the New Delhi National Zoological Park (NZP), in order to make them comparable to historical data from the 1970s by Desai & Malhotra (1979). Habitats are U, Urban; GM, Grassland and Marshland; FL, Farmland and Lake; WL, Woodland and Lake; F, Farmland; WP, Woodland and Pasture; FL, Farmland and Lake; PW, Pasture and Woodland; FP, Fishing Port.

^aData on hatching success not shown in the table: 75% (n = 36 eggs from 14 nests, Hakel, Germany, 1957; Stubbe 1961) and 64% (n = 28 eggs from 10 nests, Lazio, Italy, date unknown; Petretti 1992).

^bSample size (when different from that in column ‘Habitat (n)’).

^cData also from Mammen & Stubbe (1995, 1996).

¹Thiollay (1967), ²Desai & Malhotra (1979), ³Nore (1979), ⁴Fiuczynski (1981), ⁵Danko (1989), ⁶Koga et al. (1989), ⁷Gedeon (1994)^c, ⁸Henrioux & Henrioux (1995), ⁹Sergio & Boto (1999), ¹⁰Sergio et al. (2005), ¹¹This study.

India Meteorological Department. 2013. http://amssdelhi.gov.in/climatology/sfd1.htm [accessed 27 September 2013].

 Google Scholar

Malhotra, A.K. 2007. Tiger of sky-Pariah Kite. PhD Thesis, Shilalekh Publishers, Delhi.

 Google Scholar

Bustamante, J. & Hiraldo, F. 1990. Adoptions of fledglings by Black and Red Kites. Anim. Behav. 39: 804–806. doi: 10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80395-1

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Thiollay, J.-M. 1967. Ecologie d'une population de rapaces diurnes en Lorraine. La Terre et la Vie. 114: 116–183.

 Google Scholar

Heckenroth, V. 1970. Der Greifvögelbestand des Bodanrücks (Bodensee) 1968 and 1969. Anz. Ornithol. Ges Bayern 9: 47–51.

 Google Scholar

Galushin, V.M. 1971. A huge urban population of birds of prey in Delhi India. Ibis 113: 522. doi: 10.1111/j.1474-919X.1971.tb05189.x

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nore, T. 1979. Rapaces diurnes communs en Limousin pendant la periode de nidification (Buse, Bondre, Milan noir, Busards saint-martin et Cendre). Alauda 47: 183–194.

 Google Scholar

Sermet, E. 1980. Milan noir. In Schifferli, A., Göroudet, P. & Winkler, R. (eds.) Arias des oiseaux nicheurs de Suisse, 88–89. Station Ornithologique de Sem-pach, Sempach, Switzerland.

 Google Scholar

Fiuczynski, V. 1981. Berliner milan-chronik (Milvus migrans and Milvus milvus). Beitr. Vogelkd 27: 161–196.

 Google Scholar

Petretti, A. & Petretti, F. 1981. A population of diurnal raptors in central Italy. Gerfaut 71: 143–156.

 Google Scholar

Hiraldo, F., Veiga, J.P. & Manez, M. 1990. Growth of nestling Black Kites Milvus migrans: effects of hatching order, weather and season. J. Zool. Lond. 222: 197–214. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1990.tb05672.x

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

De Giacomo, U., Martucci, O. & Tinelli, A. 1993. L'alimentazione del Nibbio bruno (Milvus migrans) nella Tenuta di Castelporziano (Roma). Avocetta. 17: 73–78.

 Google Scholar

Viñuela, J., Villafuerte, R. & De Le Court, C. 1994. Nesting dispersion of a Black Kite population in relation to location of rabbit warrens. Can. J. Zool. 72: 1680–1683. doi: 10.1139/z94-224

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Henrioux, P. & Henrioux, J. 1995. Seize ans d'etude sur les rapaces diurnes et nocturnes dans l'Ouest lemanique (1975–1990). Nos Oiseaux 43: 1–26.

 Google Scholar

Seelig, K., Benecke, H., Braumann, F. & Nicolm, B. 1996. Die Vogel im Naturpark Drömling. Abh. Ber. Mus. Heineanum 3, Sonderh, Germany.

 Google Scholar

Sergio, F. & Boto, A. 1999. Nest dispersion, diet and breeding success of Black Kites (Milvus migrans) in Italian Pre-Alps. J. Raptor Res. 33: 207–217.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sergio, F., Pedrini, P. & Marchesi, L. 2003. Reconciling the dichotomy between single species and ecosystem conservation: Black Kites and eutrophication in pre-Alpine lakes. Biol. Conserv. 110: 101–111. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00181-7

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sergio, F., Blas, J., Forero, M., Fernández, N., Donázar, J.A. & Hiraldo, F. 2005. Preservation of wide-ranging top predators by site-protection: Black and Red kites in Doñana national park. Biol. Conserv. 125: 11–21. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2005.03.002

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Desai, J.H. & Malhotra, A.K. 1979. Breeding biology of the Pariah Kite Milvus migrans at Delhi Zoological Park. Ibis 121: 320–325. doi: 10.1111/j.1474-919X.1979.tb06849.x

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Stubbe, V. 1961. Die Besiedelungsdichte eines Abgeschlossenen Waldgebietes (Hakel) mit Greifvögeln im Jahre 1957. Beitr. Vogelkd 7: 155–224.

 Google Scholar

Petretti, F. 1992. Nibbio bruno. In Brichetti, P., De Franceschi, P. & Baccetti, N. (eds.) Fauna d'Italia, 459–465. Edizioni Calderini, Bologna, Italy.

 Google Scholar

Mammen, U. & Stubbe, V. 1995. Jahresbericht 1994 zum monitoring Greifvögeln und Eulen Europas Jahresber. Monitoring Greifvögel Eulen Europas 7: 1–78.

 Google Scholar

Mammen, U. & Stubbe, V. 1996. Jahresbericht 1995 zum monitoring Greifvögeln und Eulen Europas Jahresber. Monitoring Greifvögel Eulen Europas 8: 1–92.

 Google Scholar

Danko, Š. 1989. Five young in the nest of a Black Kite (Milvus migrans). Buteo 4: 87–92.

 Google Scholar

Koga, K., Siraishi, S. & Uchida, T.A. 1989. Breeding ecology of the Black-eared Kite Milvus migrans lineatus in the Nagasaki Peninsula, Kyushu. Jpn. J. Ornithol. 57: 57–66. doi: 10.3838/jjo.38.57

 Google Scholar

Gedeon, K. 1994. Monitoring Greifvögel und Eulen. Grundlagen und Möglichkeiten einer Langfristigen Überwachung von Bestandsgröben und Reproduktionsdaten Jahresber. Monitoring Greifvögel Eulen Europas 1: 1–118.

 Google Scholar