Indigenous entrepreneurship? Setting the record straight

Figures & data

Table 1. Examples of historical sources consulted.

Sources	Type of data	Selected examples
Primary sources	Missionary accounts Indigenous account Colonial communications Corporate letters and communications Legal accounts Treaties Government minutes	Rand, S. T. 1893. Legends of the Micmacs. New York: Longmans, Green, and co. Copway (Kah-Ge-Ga-Gah-Bowh), G. 1858. Indian Life and Indian History by an Indian Author: Embracing the traditions of the North American Indians regarding themselves, particularly of that most important of all tribes the Ojibways Boston, United States: Albert Colby and Company. De Champlain, S. 1911. The Voyages and Explorations of Samuel De Champlain (1604–1616) together with the Voyage of 1603 Reprinted from Purchas his Pilgrimes(A. Bourne, Trans.). Toronto, Canada: The Courier Press. HBC Servants’ contracts and Northern Department servants’ engagement registers (See https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/name_indexes/index.html#hbc) Canadian Constitution Act, 1867 to 1982 See https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/const/ Royal Proclamation of 1763, King George III Indian Act—1876 Treaties of Peace and Neutrality (1710–1760). For a summary see https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360866174787/1544619566736 Peace and Friendship Treaties (1725–1779). For a summary see https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360937048903/1544619681681 Upper Canada Land Surrenders and the Williams Treaties (1764–1862/1923). For a summary see https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360941656761/1544619778887#uc Robinson Treaties and Douglas Treaties (1850–1854). For a summary see https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360945974712/1544619909155#rt The Numbered Treaties (1871–1921). For a summary see https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360948213124/1544620003549 Canada, House of Commons Debates (from 1867 to 1970)
Secondary Sources	Journal articles Books & book chapters Reports and white papers	Brandão, J. A., & Starna, W. A. 1996. The treaties of 1701: A triumph of Iroquois Diplomacy. Ethnohistory, 43(2): 209–244. Brownlie, J. 2017. “Our fathers fought for the British”: Racial Discourses and Indigenous Allies in Upper Canada. Histoire sociale/Social History, 50(102): 259–284. Carlos, A. M., & Lewis, F. D. 1993. Indians, the beaver, and the Bay: The economics of depletion in the lands of the HBC 1700–1763. The Journal of Economic History 55: 465–494. Allen, R. S. 1993. His Majesty’s Indian Allies: British Indian Policy in the Defence of Canada, 1774–1815. Toronto, Canada: Dundurn Press. Belshaw, J. D. 2015. Canadian History: Pre-Confederation, Vol. 2020. Victoria, Canada: BCampus. Lutz, J. S. 2009. Makúk: A New History of Aboriginal-White Relations (1st Edition ed.). Vancouver: UBC Press. Borrows, J. 2005. Crown and Aboriginal Occupations of Land: A History and Comparison. Toronto, On: Ministry of the Attorney General Truth & Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015. Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Canada: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. OTC, 2020. Treaty Timeline, Vol. 2020. Saskatoon, Canada: Office of the Treaty Commissioner. Jacobs, B. 2000. International Law/The great Law of Peace. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.

Table 2. Our system of periodisation for understanding Indigenous peoples’ entrepreneurial and trade activities.

Historical period	Key features	Socio-economic and/or legal impact
Pre-contact to 1492	Rich diversity of Indigenous communities with a strong connection to their land base and characterised by diverse languages, religions, trading practices and cultures.	The vibrant Indigenous inter-community economy
Contact 1492–1610	As settlers arrived, they recognised Indigenous land and resource use and participated in Indigenous institutions but as more settlers arrived European powers asserted settler-colonial rule by deeming North American land legally vacant.	The new arrivals
Post-contact phase one: 1610–1680	Settlers, HBC and the Company of One Hundred Associated realised the importance of Indigenous peoples to the economic and social survival of early colonial settlements in Canada.	Indigenous peoples as allies in survival
Post-contact phase two 1680–1762	Indigenous peoples were critical allies in the fur trade.	Indigenous peoples as allies in trade
Post-contact phase three: 1763–1812	Wars between the British and French necessitated the development of alliances with Indigenous peoples and the recruitment of Indigenous warriors.	Indigenous peoples as military allies
Post-contact phase four 1812–1860	As waves of settlers arrived with the end of the War of 1812 and Indigenous peoples were no longer needed to meet colonial military and trading needs, settlers’ perceptions and government policy vis-à-vis Indigenous peoples moved from being considered allies to being seen as obstacles to settlement.	From allies to obstacles
Post-contact phase five 1860–1920	The signing of 66 treaties with Indigenous peoples sought to extinguish Indigenous rights and title and asset ownership of Canada’s land mass. The passing of the Indian Act was designed to facilitate the opening of lands for settler-colonial expansion.	Government sponsored dispossession and control

Copway (Kah-Ge-Ga-Gah-Bowh), G. (1858). Indian life and Indian history by an Indian author: Embracing the traditions of the north American Indians regarding themselves, particularly of that most important of all tribes the Ojibways. Albert Colby and Company.

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De Champlain, S. (1911). The voyages and explorations of Samuel De Champlain (1604–1616) together with the voyage of 1603 reprinted from Purchas his pilgrimes (A. Bourne, Trans.). The Courier Press.

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Brandão, J. A., & Starna, W. A. (1996). The treaties of 1701: A triumph of Iroquois Diplomacy. Ethnohistory, 43(2), 209–244. https://doi.org/10.2307/483396

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Brownlie, J. (2017). “Our fathers fought for the British”: Racial discourses and Indigenous allies in upper Canada. Histoire sociale/Social History, 50(102), 259–284. https://doi.org/10.1353/his.2017.0036

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Carlos, A. M., & Lewis, F. D. (1993). Indians, the beaver, and the Bay: The economics of depletion in the lands of the Hudson’s Bay Company 1700–1763. The Journal of Economic History, 55, 465–494.

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Allen, R. S. (1993). His Majesty’s Indian allies: British Indian policy in the defence of Canada, 1774–1815. Dundurn Press.

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Belshaw, J. D. (2015). Canadian history: Pre-confederation. BCampus.

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Lutz, J. S. (2009). Makúk: A new history of aboriginal-white relations (1st ed.). UBC Press.

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Borrows, J. (2005). Crown and aboriginal occupations of land: A history and comparison. Ministry of the Attorney General.

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Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Honouring the truth, reconciling for the future: Summary of the final report of the truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada.

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OTC. (2020). Treaty timeline (Vol. 2020). Office of the Treaty Commissioner.

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Jacobs, B. (2000). International law/The great law of peace. University of Saskatchewan.

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