“Shaving of a woman's head”: Isinmo and the Igbo women's war on forced marriages in Southern Nigeria 1900–1936

Abstract

How, when and to whom should a woman marry, what constitutes marriage and what rights has a woman to influence the selection of her spouse? These and other questions were subjects of intense contestation between young men and women and their parents, on one hand, and, on the other, between commoners and members of the traditional elite in the Western Igbo district of Igbuzo in Southern Nigeria during the early twentieth century. Disputes over marriage rites centred on the politics of isinmo or the shaving of a woman's head. Isinmo gave the “barber” exclusive and inalienable rights to the woman. Yet, in what amounted to reversal of tradition, women seeking to end or reduce parental and patriarchal control appropriated some the rituals of isinmo to contest its use and efficacy in the hands of its erstwhile beneficiaries.

Comment, quand et avec qui une femme devrait-elle se marier, et qu'est-ce qui constitue un mariage, et quels sont les droits de la femme à influencer la sélection de son époux? Ces questions, entre autres, ont fait l'objet d'une contestation intense, d'une part entre les jeunes hommes et femmes et leurs parents, et d'autre part entre les roturiers et les membres de l'élite traditionnelle du district Igbuzo, Igbo de l'ouest, dans le sud du Nigéria au début du vingtième siècle. Les contestations relatives aux rites du mariage portaient sur les aspects politiques de la tradition isinmo, consistant à raser les cheveux de la femme. Isinmo donnait au «coiffeur» des droits exclusifs et inaliénables sur la femme. Or, dans un mouvement équivalent au renversement de la tradition, les femmes désireuses de mettre fin ou de réduire le contrôle parental ou patriarcal se sont approprié certains des rituels isinmo pour en contester l'utilisation et l'efficacité aux mains de ses bénéficiaires d'autrefois.

Keywords::

• Nigeria
• Igbo
• marriage
• resistance
• colonialism
• elite wives

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the Humanities Research Institute, Brock University for providing seed money for the research and the participants at the Bill Gohlman Memorial Lectures in Global History, State University of New York (SUNY) Geneseo, where an earlier version of this article was presented in February 2013. I would also like to thank the History Department and Jennifer Lofkrantz for the invitation and their comments.

Notes

^1. Caps and yams were two markers of chiefly powers in indigenous Igbo society. On the women's war, see Notes of evidence taken by the Commission of Inquiry appointed to inquire into the disturbances in the Calabar and Owerri provinces, December, 1929 (Lagos Government Printers, 1930).

^2. In 2010, a Nigerian politician was confronted by women accusing him and others of hijacking the political process: “The moment we stepped out of my car, the crowd of about 200, largely women, greeted us with abuses. We were both called all manner of unprintable names and almost physically attacked. Their grouse: why were we bringing a “Lagos import” when they had an idea of a local person who they wanted as deputy governor”. We ran into the palace [of Ewi of Ado-Ekiti] to avoid attack.” Cf. Babafemi Ojudu, “Adunni: The Journey of an accidental politician.” http://saharareporters.com/article/adunni-journey-accidental-politician-senator-babafemi-ojudu. Posted on 22 April 2013.

^3. Terisa Turner, “Nakedness and power”. http://www.uoguelph.ca/∼ terisatu/index.htm

^4. J. N. Hill, “Ancient native custom of Ibusa people” and “Shaving of women's head in Ibusa: Notes of meeting held at Ibusa on the 13th of April 1934”, Ben Prof 1/BP761, National Archives Ibadan (NAI).

^5. “Intelligence Report on Akwukwu-Atuma Village Group of Asaba District, 1936”, Asaba Div 8/1, NAI; “Intelligence Reports on Ogwashiuku Clan Asaba District, 1934”, Ben Prof 4/3/8, NAI.

^6. H. Vaux, Intelligence Report on Asaba, 1934, CSO 26/30929, NAI.

^7. J. E. Jull, “Intelligence Report on Ogwashiuku Clan, Asaba Division”, 5, CSO 26//3/31350, NAI.

^8. G. B. Williams and E. A. Miller, “Intelligence Report on Aboh-Benin Clans, 1930/31”, CSO 26/3/26769, NAI; Vaux, Intelligence Report on Asaba; Intelligence Report on Akwukwu-Atuma, and Intelligence Report on the Agbor, Oligie and Enuani clans, CSO 26/4/3038X, NAI.

^9. Intelligence Report on Ogwashiuku District, Ben Prof 4/3/8, NAI.

^10. Intelligence Report on Ogwashiuku District, 162, Ben Prof 4/3/8, NAI.

^11. “Ancient native customs” and testimonies by Obi Uche and Okafor in “Notes of meeting April 13, 1934”, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI and Intelligence Report on Ogwashiuku, para. 163–164.

^12. See “Dowry payment”, Warri Prof 2/598, NAI.

^13. Interview with Marianne Onyemenan, 27 May 2009, Okpanam.

^14. Interviews with Madam Mary Nkechukwu, c.88 and Alice Obanuwa, Igbuso, 27 May 2012.

^15. Marriage Laws, Benin Native Courts 1924, Ben Prof 1/1004, NAI.

^16. Intelligence Report on Ogwashiuku Clan, para. 150, Ben Prof 4/3/8, NAI.

^17. Annual Report for Benin Prof, 1934, para. 21, CSO 26/14617, vol. x, NAI and “Unrest in Benin Province”, CSO 26/26532, vol. II, NAI.

^18. Philanthropist to Editor, Dawn, “Enslavement of girls at Ibusa, June 2, 1934”, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^19. “Enslavement of girls at Ibusa, Asaba District”, Dawn, 2 June 1934.

^20. Acting Secretary, Southern Provinces to Williams, 9 June 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI and Keer, “Intelligence Report on Ibusa and Okpanam”, Asaba Div 9/3, NAI.

^21. See Ibusa Native Court Case no. 131/34.

^22. Hill to Williams, 17 May 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^23. Hill to Williams, 17 May 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, 28–47, NAI.

^24. See Hill to Williams, 17 May 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP 761, 28–45, NAI.

^25. Hill to Williams, 17 May and 26 June 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^26. Hill to Williams, 26 June 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^27. Denton, Annual Report on Benin Province, 1936, para. 31, CSO 26/2/14617, vol. xii, NAI.

^28. See Hill to Williams, 17 May 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP 761, 28–45, NAI.

^29. Testimonies by Alice Obunuwa and John Uda, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^30. Testimony of Susie Okolie in court transcripts, Ben Prof 1/BP761, 28, NAI.

^31. Testimony of Daniel Okoma in court transcripts, Ben Prof 1/BP761, 28, NAI.

^32. See Transcript of isinmo trilas, Igbuso native court, April 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^33. Testimonies by Lydia Charles and James Mama, April 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^34. Testimony by Alice Obunuwa, April 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^35. Testimonies by Ofuonyeadi, Ewezebuona, Adeze and Mgbolu, Ben Prof 1/BP761, 28, NAI.

^36. Testimony by Mgbolie, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^37. Williams to Hill, 22 August 1934, Ben Prof 1/761, NAI.

^38. Testimonies by Chionye, Nwaogwugwu and Janet Moweter, April 1934.

^39. Testimony by Nwadele, April 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^40. Testimonies by Mgboaniai and Mbuzo, April 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^41. Testimonies by Nkemuamuna and Onwuesim, April 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^42. Testimonies by Nwaboshi and Akaluzia, April 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^43. Testimonies by Nwaboshi and Akaluzia, April 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^44. Testimony of Nwadiafu in court transcripts, Ben Prof 1/BP761, 28, NAI.

^45. Testimonies by Ukadiga, Otubo Nwote, Agnes Okonkwo and F. Ebonewebka, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^46. “Ancient native customs”, and testimony by Okafor at public meeting, BenProf 1/BP761/9, NAI.

^47. “Testimonies by Uche and Chigbue at public meeting”, BenProf 1/BP761/9, NAI.

^48. “Notes of meeting held at Ibusa on April 13, 1934,” Ben Prof 1/BP761/13, NAI.

^49. Testimony by Okobi, April 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

^50. Testimonies by Onyeamu and Maggie Osekwe, April 1934, Ben Prof 1/BP761, NAI.

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Olatunji Ojo

Olatunji Ojo teaches African History at Brock University, St Catharines, Ontario. He is a Fellow of the Harriet Tubman Institute, York University, Toronto and the African Origins Name Database Project at Emory University, Atlanta. His recent publications include an edited volume (with Nadine Hunt), Slavery in Africa and the Caribbean: A History of Enslavement and Identity Since the 18th Century (London: I. B. Tauris, 2012) and essays on slavery, memory, historical methodology and the African diaspora that have appeared in the Journal of African History, Slavery and Abolition, History in Africa and African Economic History.