Leader airtime management and team effectiveness in emergency management command and control (EMCC) teams

Figures & data

Figure 1. Conceptual model of leader airtime management for EMCC teams.

An ellipse with the words leader airtime management and below left and right two text boxes describing the behaviour within the components of leader airtime management, i.e. opening and closing, respectively.

Figure 2. Overview of team meetings and phases of EMCC teams in the Netherlands.

The sequence of the general team phases in the first row is related to the meeting phases of EMCC teams in the second row.

Table 1. Coding scheme leader airtime management.

Component	Behaviour	Definition	Example
Open	Request to talk/questioning	All statements that invite a team member to talk.	Do you have additional information on the situation at the scene at this moment?
	Test for understanding	Probing for further explanation, asking to clarify/for clarification.	That was not clear, do we miss a person? So you are executing that?
	Emphasise a remark	Emphasising a remark.	A good point. Thank you!
	Ask for opinion/alternative views	Asking for the opinion of team members or encouraging alternative views.	What is your opinion on scaling up?
Closing	Postponing	Stating that a statement will be picked up later on during the discussion.	When can talk about that later. I will come back to that point in a minute.
	Rejecting	Stating that a statement is not relevant for the meeting.	I only want additional information, no repetitions; this is already on the whiteboard.
	Decision	Decision that closes the discussion about a topic.	So, we increase the emergency level to GRIP 2.
	Command	Command about how to approach something which closes a topic.	Police, could you find out what exactly is located behind these buildings?

Besides a label for the behaviour and a definition, examples from the data are provided.

Figure 3. Graphical overview of leader airtime management in two EMCC team meetings. Note. The selected teams are high (Team 1) and low performing (Team 2) on both components of team effectiveness.

A meeting of one high and one low performing team. For each a horizontal indication of the meeting time in the top section is presented, underneath bars representing opening and closing statements, and at the bottom the according meeting phases.

Table 2. Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations of the study variables.

Variable	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
Leader opening phase 1	11.93	7.68	–
Leader opening phase 2	11.07	2.68	.074	–
Leader opening phase 3	10.75	4.01	.417	.318	–
Leader opening phase 4	9.44	2.91	.360	.237	.343	–
Leader opening phase 5	11.62	6.51	.723*	.484	.642*	.504	–
Leader closing phase 1	0.00	0.00	–	–	–	–	–	–
Leader closing phase 2	1.16	1.15	.040	−.168	.545	.273	.249	–	–
Leader closing phase 3	3.63	1.35	.189	−.124	.039	.037	−.015	–	.201	–
Leader closing phase 4	1.01	1.23	.157	−.288	−.189	.064	−.288	–	−.137	.547	–
Leader closing phase 5	2.80	1.69	.265	−.066	−.033	.095	.392	–	.060	−.230	−.247	–
TSA	4.87	1.01	.031	−.684*	−.663*	.031	−.292	–	−.044	.196	.340	.065	–
TDM	5.67	0.79	.014	−.306	−.544	.100	−.204	–	−.163	.121	.586*	−.082	.766*	–

*p < .05.

Figure 4. (a–d) Graphical overview of leader airtime management opening and closing in the different team phases between high and low effective teams. (a,b) Concern the team effectiveness component TSA. (c,d) The team effectiveness component TDM. Phase 1 = Initial structuring phase, phase 2 = information sharing phase meeting 1, phase 3 = decision-making phase meeting 1, phase 4 = information sharing phase meeting 2, phase 5 = decision-making phase meeting 2.

(a) Team meeting phase on the X axis, leader opening on the Y axis. One line for high and one for low performing teams on the team effectiveness component TSA. (b) Team meeting phase on the X axis, leader closing on the Y axis. One line for high and one for low performing teams on the team effectiveness component TSA. (c) Team meeting phase on the X axis, leader opening on the Y axis. One line for high and one for low performing teams on the team effectiveness component TDM. (d) Team meeting phase on the X axis, leader closing on the Y axis. One line for high and one for low performing teams on the team effectiveness component TDM.

Table 3. Comparisons of leader airtime management across the different team phases.

Phase	Structuring		Information sharing 1		Decision-making 1		Information sharing 2		Decision-making 2		F ratio	p
Component	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
Leader opening	11.93a	7.68	11.07a	2.68	10.75a	4.01	9.44a	2.91	11.62a	6.51	.67	.619
Leader closing	0.00a	0.00	1.16a	1.15	3.63b	1.35	1.01a	1.23	2.80c	1.69	13.78	.000

^a,b,cMeans in a row without a common superscript letter differ (p < 0.05), as analysed by two-way mixed ANOVA.

Table 4. Comparisons of leader airtime management between teams high and low effective in TSA within the different team phases.

Factor	Component	Structuring phase				Information sharing phase 1				Decision-making phase 1				Information sharing phase 2				Decision-making phase 2
		M	SD	F	p	M	SD	F	p	M	SD	F	p	M	SD	F	p	M	SD	F	p
TSA	Leader opening
	Low performing	10.44	4.03	.217	.652	12.35	3.51	3.295	.100	14.40	2.62	12.29	.006**	8.96	3.05	.006	.939	12.80	3.76	.561	.471
	High performing	12.78	9.37			10.34	2.03			8.67	3.07			9.70	3.04			10.95	7.88

**p < .01.

Table

Component	Item
TSA (image)	The team managed to create a shared image of the situation in a short time.
	The image reflected the situation and its dilemma’s.
	The image of the situation was realistic.
	The image of the situation was unambiguous.
	The decisions, advices and assignments of the units are based on the actual own image and the overall image of the situation.
TDM (decision)	The decisions are translated into an assignment for a specific professional or a team.
	The assignments are given to the relevant team or person.
	The information in the plot of the team at the end of the meeting was relevant: the development and effects of the incident; risks for the rescue services and others on scene; the approach; the people and material needed.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, MH, upon reasonable request.