Definiteness Marking from Evaluative Morphology in Balochi: Internal Variation and Diachronic Pathway

Figures & data

Figure 1. The approximate locations of these three dialect groups.

Source: Taken from Nourzaei, Participant Reference in Three Balochi Dialect, 31.

Table

Types of definiteness contexts
Anaphoric definiteness	The referent has an antecedent in the preceding textual context: A man and a woman entered. The man sat down.
Bridging definiteness	The referent has not been previously mentioned in the discourse context, but its existence can be inferred from associated expressions:^11 We bought a new car but the brakes were faulty.
Proper nouns	The noun is conventionally associated with a specific entity: Sweden, Angela Merkel, Mount Kilimanjaro
Possessed nouns	The noun is accompanied by a grammatical possessor, often syntactically fulfilling the determiner function: my house, their child, Henry's birthday
Deictically modified nouns	Nouns accompanied by demonstrative elements: this article, that place
Unique referents	Entities which are assumed to be uniquely identifiable by all members of a given speech community, hence require no preceding or inferable mention: the sun, the river (in a given community), the President etc.
Situational definiteness	Identifiability is achieved through the immediate speech context, possibly aided through additional gestures and adverbial expressions: the man over there (pointing).

Table

'do	zā'g-ok	šā'ī	'mant-ant
two	child-EV	from.PROX	stay.PST-3PL
“she [died and] left two small children [in this world]”^19

Table

tās-ok=ē	āp=om	ot-ī	mās-ā	ē	ǰenek
bowl-EV=IND	water=ADD	REFL-GEN	mother-OBL	PROX	girl
na-dāt-Ø
NEG-give.PST-3SG
“this girl did not give her mother even a small bowl of water”^20

Table

mnī	ǰenek-ok	dōšī	ša	zāhedān	āt-Ø
PN.1SG.GEN	girl-EV	last night	from	Zahedan	come.PST-3SG
“my lovely daughter came from Zahedan last night”^21

Table

man	ot-ī	mard-ok-ā	dōst	dār-īn
PN.1SG	REFL-GEN	husband-EV-OBL	love	have.PST-1SG
“I love my dear husband”^22

Table

ǰan-ak	ta	ot-ī	dap-ā	Ø-band-Ø
woman-EV	PN.2SG	REFL-GEN	mouth	IMPV-close-2SG
“woman shut up (lit. close your mouth)”^23

Table

kas=e	ke	āwāz	b-gūš-īt	amma
someone=INDF	CLM	song	SUBJV-say.NPST-3SG	PN.1PL.INCL

Table

goš ant=e	lōṭī-ka
say.NPST-1PL=PC.3SG	goldsmith-EV
“whoever sings we call him/her lōṭī-ka”

Table

bē'gāh=ī	mar'dāk	āt-Ø
evening=PC.3SG	man (EV)	come.PST-3SG
“in the evening, the man returned back”^24

Table

ǰenekko	go-Ø
girl (EV)	say.PST-3SG
“the girl said”^25

Table

marde'k-ā-ye	'sīr	šo'rū	'bīt-Ø
man (EV)-OBL-GEN	wedding	start	become.PST-3SG
“the wedding celebration of the man started”^26

Table

'mā	yak	īnčok'ễ	čīz=ē	yak	rī'ḍū=ē	yak
PN.1PL	one	such-ATTR	thing=IND	one	radio=IND	one

Table

zap't-ok=ē	gwan'ḍ-ok=ē	lōṭe't-a
recorder-EV=IND	small-EV=IND	want.PST-PP
“we asked (lit. have asked) for something, a radio, a small recorder”^28

Table

'čōbī	'ča	ī'd-ūk-ā	'če	mas-te'r=ễ
you know	from	Id-EV-OBL	from	old-COMP=COP.NPST.3SG
“you know, he was older than Ido”^29

Table

'yak=ē	bīt-a=Ø	zay'n-ok
one=IND	become.PST-PP=COP.NAPST.3SG	zenab-EV
“one called (lit. has been) Zenab”^30

Table

'čok	'gȭ	o't-ī	ǰām-ok-'ān
child	with	REFL-GEN	jar-EV-PL
“the children with their little jars … ”^31

Table

zā'g-ok=ē	al'lāh-ay	ra'zā	ē'šī	gī'r-ā=a
child-EV=IND	God-GEN	satisfaction	PROX.GEN	grip-OBL=VCL
kap-īt
fall.NPST-3SG
“by God’s power; she found a little boy”^33

Table

ar-ok=k=ē	dāšt-Ø
donkey-EV=IND	have.PST-3SG
“he had a little donkey”^34

Table

xā'n-ok-ā	'mār	'wārt-a=Ø
Khanbibi-EV-OBL	snake	eat.PST-PP=COP.NPST.3SG
“snake has beaten (lit. eaten) Khanbibi”^35

Table

pa	zāg-ok-ān	šayr=a	ǰat-Ø
for	child-EV-PL	poem=VCL	hit.PST-3SG
“he started reciting poems for the children”^36

Table

man	go	ē	mašīn-ok-ā	āt-on
PN.1SG	with	PROX	car-EV-OBL	come.PST.1SG
“I came with this car”^37

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ē	kasag-ok-ā	b-day-Ø	mnā
PROX	bowl-EV-OBL	IMPV-give.NPST-2SG	PN.1SG.OBJ
“give me this bowl”^38

Table

'eš=a	'raw-t	'gō	'me	maške-čok'-kay
PROX=VCL	go.NPST-3SG	with	EMPH.PROX	goat skin-EV-GEN
ā'p-ān
water-PL
“He went with this water in the goat skin”^39

Table

ha'm=ē	ṭapo'r-ok-ā	'wtī	sa'rā	'prēn-ay
EMPH=DEM	carpet-EV-OBL	REFL.GEN	on	throw.NPST-2SG
“you cover yourself with this carpet”^40

Table

be=m=ē	har-ok-ay	dēmā	kort-Ø
to=EMPH=DEM	donkey-EV-GEN	front	do.PST-3SG
“[first, he put these very watermelons to pieces] in front of this donkey”^41

Table

Ø- brā-Ø	topak-ok-a	ša	ges-e-ta
IMPV-go.NPST-2SG	gun- EV-OBL	from	room-GEN-in
by-ār-Ø
IMPV-bring.NPST-2SG
“go and bring the gun from the room”^42

Table

gwālag-ok-ā	man=ā	bar-īn
bag-EV-OBL	PN.1SG=VCL	take.NPST-1SG
“I will take the bag”^43

Table

māmā	man	dōšī	ges-ok-ā	māmel=a
mother	PN.1SG	yesterday	house-EV-OBL	deal=VCL
kort-on=o		nok-en	haptag=a	raw-an
do.PST-1SG=and		new-ATTR	week=VCL	go.NPST-1PL
be=te
in=PC.3SG
“mother, I have bought the house and we will move into it next week”^44

Table

yak	'mard=ē	'hast=a
one	man=IND	be.PST.3SG =COP.PST.3SG
“there was a man”^46

Table

'rōč=ē	rōz'gār-a	b-ī	bādšāh=ē
sun=IND	time-OBL	be.PST-3SG	king=IND
“Once upon a time there was a king”^47

Table

zāg-ok	dāšt-Ø	sīb=a	čet-Ø
child-EV	have.PST-3SG	apple=VCL	pick.up.PST-3SG
“the little child was picking up apples”^48

Table

yakk	taǰǰār=ē=at
one	merchant=IND=COP.PST.3SG
ē	taǰǰār	bāz	paysalager=ē=at
PROX	merchant	very	arbitration.ADJZ=IND=COP.PST.3SG
“there was a merchant, this merchant was a very wise person in arbitration”^50

Table

taǰǰār	be	wa-tī	sarmāya-ā	yag	ǰenekk=ē
merchant	in	REFL-GEN	assets-OBL	one	girl=IND
dāšt-Ø
have.PST-3SG
“the merchant had one daughter as his (only) asset”^51

Table

ar=ra's-ī	čū'bān=Ø-ā	ba
VCL=arrive.NPST-3SG	shepherd=(IND)-OBL	to
čūbā'n-ok-a	a='š-ī
shepherd-DEF-OBL	VCL=say.NPST-3SG
“he arrived at [a place where there was a] shepherd, he said to the shepherd … ”^56

Table

ar=ra's-ī	be	bāġ'bān-ā	ar='raf-t
VCL=arrive.NPST-3SG	to	gardener=(IND)-OBL	VCL=arrive.NPST-3SG

Table

had=e	ham=ī	pīramar'd-ok-ā	a='š-ī
to=EZ	EMPH=PROX	Old man-DEF-OBL	VCL=say.NPST-3SG
“he came (lit. arrived) to a gardener. He went to this old man; he said … ”^58

Table

'ǰoġalok	ham	ya	'asp=e	bod-ag=ī	ke
boy-DEF	ADD	one	horse=IND	become.PST-PP=PC.3SG	CLM

Table

'ē	as'p-ok	har	'sāl	ke	kor'rag=ē
PROX	horse-DEF	each	year	CLM	foal=PC.3SG

Table

ma-ba'r-ā	bod-a	bo'kān=ī
IMP-take.NPST-BACKG.3SG	become.PST-PP	want.NPST=PC.3SG

Table

'bez-zay-Ø	ma-ba'r-ā
SUBJV-give birth.NPST-3SG	IMP-take.NPST-BACKG.3SG

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bod-a	ma-prē'n-ā	bod-a
become.PST-PP	IMP-take.NPST-BACKG.3SG	become.PST-PP

Table

'mā	dar'yā-hā
into	sea-OBL
“the boy had a horse (lit. a horse was for the boy) which, every time this horse wanted to take … to give birth to her foal, she used to take it [and] throw it into the sea”^59

Table

dāza'n-ok	yak	'čāh=ī	'war
woman-DEF	one	well=IND	PREV

Table

a=k-ār-īd =o	tō'xay	=am	'por	as
VCL=IMP.k-bring.NPST-3SG=and	in=PC.3SG	ADD	full	from

Table

šam'šīr=o	nay'za	a=kan-t	ya	ġā'lī	=am
sword=and	spear	VCL=do.NPST-3SG	one	carpet	ADD

Table

a=prē'n-ī	rū	'ē	čā'h-ok-ay	sa'rā
VCL=throw.NPST-3SG	on	PROX	well-DEF-GEM	on
“the woman dug a well and filled it with swords and spears [and] she spread a carpet on this well”^60

Table

ya	āšdarmā'nī= am	a='g-īt	a'z=ay=o
one	turmeric=ADD	VCL=take.NPST-3SG	from=PC.3SG=and

Table

a='ǰan-t	ba'dan.ay	a='š-ī
VCL=hit.NPST-3SG	body.OBL.PC.3SG	VCL=say.NPST-3SG

Table

ke	'ta	'ē	āšdarmānī-'ok-ā	'be-ǰan-Ø
CLM	PN.2SG	PROX	turmeric-DEF-OBL	IMPV-hit.NPST-2SG
“so she got some turmeric from him and rubbed [it] on her body; he said /that/, ‘Rub this turmeric [on your body]’”^62

Table

a='š-ī	'xo	pas	'be-l-et	ta	'man
VCL=say.NPST-3SG	well	then	IMPV-let.NPST-2PL	till	PN.1SG

Table

ya	'dawr	'gōn=e	'ē	mīyā'n-ok-ā =o
one	turn	with=PC.3SG	PROX	square-DEF-OBL=and

Table

'gōn=e	'ber-r-ān
with=PC.3SG	SBJV-go.NPST-1SG
“he said, ‘Alright, then let me take a ride around this square on it … ’”^63

Table

ar'raf-t=o	xolā'sa	ham=ī	kār-o'bār=ī
VCL=go.NPST-3SG=and	in short	EMPH=PROX	work-PL=IND

Table

ke	ā	dokto'r-ok	gaš't-ay	bod-a
CLM	DIST	doctor-DEF	say.PST-PP.PC.3SG	become.PST-PP
a'kan-t
VCL=do.NPST-3SG
“she went and, you know, did just what (lit. this very job that) that doctor told [her]”^64

Table

ya	'bāġ=e	'gott=e	bod-ag=en …
one	garden=EZ	big=IND	become.PST-PP=COP.3SG …

Table

ā	bā'ġ-ok	ham	ya	'šāh-e
DIST	garden-DEF	ADD	one	king-GEN
bod-ag=en
become.PST-PP=COP.NPST.3SG
“there was a big garden […] a king owned that garden”^65

Table

de'ya	ar='raf-t	madra'sā=o	xolā'sa	'ī
well	VCL=go.NPST-3SG	school.OBL=and	in short	PROX

Table

'mā	madra'sā	monta'zer	bod-ag=en
in	school.OBL	waiting	become.PST.PP=COP.NPST.3SG

Table

as'p-ok-ay	šay'hā	'bī-aškon-ī=o
horse-DEF-GEN	neighing.OBL	SUBJV-hear.NPST-3SG=and

Table

e'šān	awa'l-īn	šay'hā	a=ka'š-ī
like this	first-ATTR	neighing.OBL	VCL=pull.NPST-3SG

Table

ǰoġa'l-ok	a='k-ay-Ø	'pād
boy-DEF	VCL=IMP.k-come.NPST-3SG	foot
Ø-ay-t	moale'm-ok	ne'hīb=ē
SUBJV-come.NPST-3SG	teacher-DEF	shout=IND
a='dā-Ø
VCL=go.NPST-3SG
“Well, he goes to school and, you know, at school he was waiting to hear the neighing of the horse, you know, when the foal neighs the first time, the boy is about to stand up, the teacher shouts at him”^66

Table

kanī'z-ok	ke	a='raf-t
maidservant-DEF	CLM	VCL=go.NPST-3SG
“the maidservant went … ”^67

Table

čok-o'bār	bā'lād	'say	a=kan-ant
child-PL	up	looking	VCL=do.NPST-3PL
“the children looked up”^69

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šā'h-ay	'bač	a'z=ay	a='š-ī
king-GEN	son	to=PC.3SG	say.NPST-3SG
“The king’s son said to her”^70

Table

a='š-ī	ke	'man-ī	kor'rag-ā	'hīčka
say.NPST-3SG	CLM	PN.1SG-GEN	foal-OBL	nobody

Table

a='na-tān-t	'gott	Ø-kan-t
VCL=NEG-be able.NPST-3SG	big	SUBJV-do.NPST-3SG
“It said /that/, ‘No one can raise my foal’”^71

Table

'ǰan=e=am	'godde	ya	mo'dat=e	ma'rīz
wife=PC.3SG=ADD	after=EZ	one	time=IND	ill

Table

a=b-īd=o	a=me'r-īd
VCL=become.NPST-3SG=and	VCL=die.NPST-3SG
“after a while, his wife become sick and died”^72

Table

šā'h-ay	awa'l-īn	'bač=ī	'be-mer-īd
king-GEN	first-ATTR	son=PC.3SG	SUBJV-die.NPST-3SG
“the king’s first son would die”^73

Table

'odān	čāh=e	'war	āort-a	a=ka'f-ay
there	well=IND	PREV	bring.PST-PP	VCL=fall.NPST-2SG

Table

'mā	čā'h-ā
into	well-OBL
“dug a well there; you will fall into the well”^74

Table

ǰoġa'l-ok=am	ya	'dawr=e	a='ǰan-t	gō
boy-DEF=ADD	one	turn=IND	VCL=hit.NPST-3SG	with
as'p-ā
horse-OBL
“the boy took a ride on horse”^75

Table

'waxte	az	madra'sā	ar='raf-Ø	'lōg-ā
when	from	school.OBL	VCL=go.NPST-3SG	home-OBL
“when he went home from school”^76

Table

de'ya	ar'raf-t	madra'sā=o	xolā'sa	'ī
well	VCL=go.NPST-3SG	school.OBL=and	in short	PROX

Table

'mā	madra'sā	monta'zer	bod-ag=en
in	school.OBL	waiting	become.PST-PP=COP.NPST.3SG

Table

e'š-ān	a'=š-ant	ha'san	ka'čal	fa'ġat
PROX-PL	VCL=say.NPST-3PL	Hasan	bald	only

Table

nay-āk-ag=en	'mā	ē'š-ān
NEG-come.PST-PP=COP.NPST.3SG	with	PROX-PL
“they said, ‘Only Hasan the Bald has not come along with these’”^79

Table

xolā'sa	'šāh=am	ar='raf-t=o	ye	'ǰan=e
in short	king=ADD	VCL=go.NPST-3SG=and	one	wife=EZ

Table

de'ya=am	a'=g-ī
other=ADD	VCL=take.NPST-3SG
“so the king went and took another woman”^80

Table

a=š-ant	xob	ber-r-et	ahmad-ok-ā
VCL=say.NPST-3PL	good	IMPV-go.NPST-2PL	Ahmad-DEF-OBL

Table

bīy-ār-et
IMPV-bring.NPST-2PL
“They said, ‘Alright, go and bring Ahmad’”^81

Table

'ē	as'p-ok	har	'sāl	ke	kor'rag=ē
PROX	horse-DEF	each	year	CLM	foal=PC.3SG

Table

ma-ba'r-ā	bod-a	bo'kān=ī
IMP-take.NPST-BACKG.3SG	become.PST-PP	want.NPST=PC.3SG

Table

'bez-zay-Ø	ma-ba'r-ā
SUBJV-give birth.NPST-3SG	IMP-take.NPST-BACKG.3SG

Table

bod-a	ma-prē'n-ā	bod-a
become.PST-PP	IMP-take.NPST-BACKG.3SG	become.PST-PP

Table

'mā	dar'yā-hā	'asp	kor'rag=ay	mako'š-ā
into	sea-OBL	horse	foal=PC.3SG	IMP-take.NPST-BACKG.3SG
bod-a
become.PST-PP
“every time this horse wanted to take … to give birth to her foal, she used to take it [and] throw it into the sea; the horse used to kill her foal”^83

Table

'ē	mē'š-ā	a=ko'š-īd
PROX	sheep-OBL	VCL=kill.NPST-3SG
“he slaughtered the sheep”^84

Table

ke	ǰoġa'la	'ra-Ø	madra'sa
CLM	boy	go.PST-3SG	school
“when the boy went to school”^85

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a=gen'n-ī	ta	'ye	na'far	xo'dā-yā	'swār=e
VCL=see.NPST-3SG	MIR	one	person	God-VOC	riding=EZ

Table

'ē	'asp=en
PROX	horse=COP.NPST.3SG
“oh God, one person had mounted this horse”^86

Table

'ē	ham	noġ'l-ā	a=gen'n-ī	'geft=eš
PROX	ADD	sweets-OBL	VCL=see.NPST-3SG	take.PST=PC.3PL

Table

'pešk	a=dā-Ø	bā'lād
throwing	VCL=give.NPST-3SG	up
“he saw that they were about to catch [him], so he threw (lit. into the air) the candy from above”^88

Table

oš'tor-ā	az'īyat	ma-ka'n-ag=en
camel-OBL	trouble	IMP-do.NPST-INF=COP.NPST.3SG
“she is giving the camels a hard time (lit. camel)”^89

Table 1. Summary overview of corpus

Dialect	Texts	male/ female	Words	Mean text size (words)	Range text size	N texts > 500 words
Koroshi	33	11 / 21	31439	953	106-2443	26
Coastal	39	20/19	47889	1228	53-3061	28
Sistani	8	4/4	12877	1609	481-2810	7

Figure 2. Overall frequency of the K-suffixes per 1,000 words.

Figure 3. Percentages of different forms used for VIPs in narratives.

Table 2. Percentage of the K-suffixes, based on questionnaire (twelve speakers per dialect, rounded mean percentages of all speakers’ responses)

(In-)definiteness type	CoaBal	SisBal	KorBal
Anaphoric	7	74	48
Bridging	6	59	40
Possessed noun	10	71	0
First mention (indef. specific)	3	70	0
Non-referential, generic	4	40	0

Note that the raw figures will be made available for publication.

Table 3. Summary overview of grammaticalization path of evaluative to definiteness

Functions	Coastal	Sistani	Koroshi
Evaluative usage - possible in non-definite contexts - no structural constraints - frequency dependent on context, speaker, and content	+	+	–
Deictic and recognitional contexts - in combination with proximal demonstratives - singular only	–	+	+
Anaphoric definite - demonstrative not required - structural constraints (possessive, plural etc.)	–	–	+

Table

1 2 3 [] ()  …  Ø - = ADD ADJZ CLM CoaBal COMP COP DEF DIM DIST EMPH EV EZ GEN IMP IMP.k IMPV INCL IND INF KorBal

first person second person third person additional information to the text additional information to the gloss incomplete sentence zero morpheme affix boundary clitic boundary additive particle adjectivizer clause linkage marker Coastal Balochi comparative copula (present indicative) definite diminutive distal emphasis evaluative eẓāfe particle genitive case imperfective imperfective prefix k- imperative inclusive pronoun individuation clitic infinitive Koroshi Balochi

NEG NPST OBJ OBL PC PL PN PP PREV PROX PST REFL SisBal sg UT VOC VCL

negation non-past stem object case oblique case person-marking enclitic (person clitic) plural personal pronoun past participle preverb proximal deixis past stem reflexive pronoun Sistani Balochi singular unpublished text vocative case verbal clitic

Appendix 1: Raw data for VIP-referents, Figure 3 of main manuscript

B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	L	M	N	O	P
Dialect	male/female	Story	VIPs	human/non-hum.	K-suffix	prox	bare	prox+np	prox+np-K	sum g:k-prox	total K(g+k)	% K	% prox+np	% bare
Koroshi	male	The King's Son	foal	non-human	2	0	17	17	0	36	2	6%	47%	47%
Koroshi	male	The King's Son	king's son	human	0	13	10	10	0	20	0	0%	50%	50%
Koroshi	male	The King's Son	king's daughter	human	0	0	3	2	0	5	0	0%	40%	60%
Koroshi	female	The King's Son	horse	non-human	26	1	3	1	1	31	27	87%	3%	10%
Koroshi	female	The King's Son	foal	non-human	2	2	1	0	1	4	3	75%	0%	25%
Koroshi	female	The King's Son	king's son	human	26	11	3	7	9	45	35	78%	16%	7%
Koroshi	female	The King's Son	king's daughter	human	5	2	2	3	0	10	5	50%	30%	20%
Coastal	female	the King's Daughter	king's daughter	human	0	31	15	21	0	36	0	0%	58%	42%
Coastal	female	the King's Daughter	Mullah	human	0	4	3	0	0	3	0	0%	0%	100%
Coastal	female	the King's Daughter	king	human	0	4	4	3	0	7	0	0%	43%	57%
Coastal	male	the King's Daughter	king's daughter	human	1	11	55	22	0	78	1	1%	28%	71%
Coastal	male	the King's Daughter	Mullah	human	0	3	44	1	0	45	0	0%	2%	98%
Coastal	male	the King's Daughter	king	human	0	1	22	3	0	25	0	0%	12%	88%
Sistani	male	Mullah Neykadar Jan	boy	human	0	46	2	11	0	13	0	0%	85%	15%
Sistani	male	Mullah Neykadar Jan	Mullah	human	0	21	10	2	0	12	0	0%	17%	83%
Sistani	female	Mullah Neykadar Jan	boy	human	0	33	24	16	0	40	0	0%	40%	60%
Sistani	female	Mullah Neykadar Jan	Mullah	human	0	35	14	3	0	17	0	0%	18%	82%
				Totals:	62	218	232	122	11	645

Note: ʻProx' (Column H) refers to the use of a stand-alone proximal demonstrative as an anaphoric pronoun, which have been excluded from the counts.