Women’s Empowerment Mitigates the Negative Effects of Low Production Diversity on Maternal and Child Nutrition in Nepal

Figures & data

Table 1. The five domains of empowerment in the WEAI

Domain	Indicator	Definition of indicator	Weight
Production	Input in productive decisions	Sole or joint decision-making over food and cash-crop farming, livestock, and fisheries	1/10
	Autonomy in production	Autonomy in agricultural production (e.g. what inputs to buy, crops to grow, what livestock to raise, etc.). Reflects the extent to which the respondent’s motivation for decision-making reflects his/her values rather than a desire to please others or avoid harm.	1/10
Resources	Ownership of assets	Sole or joint ownership of major household assets	1/15
	Purchase, sale, or transfer of assets	Whether respondent participates in decision to buy, sell or transfer his/ her owned assets	1/15
	Access to and decisions on credit	Access to and participation in decision-making concerning credit	1/15
Income	Control over use of income	Sole or joint control over income and expenditures	1/5
Leadership	Group member	Whether respondent is an active member in at least one economic or social group (e.g. agricultural marketing, credit, water users’ groups)	1/10
	Speaking in public	Whether the respondent is comfortable speaking in public concerning various issues such as intervening in a family dispute, ensure proper payment of wages for public work programmes, etc.	1/10
Time	Workload	Allocation of time to productive and domestic tasks	1/10
	Leisure	Satisfaction with the available time for leisure activities	1/10

Source: Alkire et al. (2013)

Figure 1. Suaahara baseline survey districts in Nepal

Source: Cunningham et al. (2013b).

Note: The baseline survey included eight intervention districts where Suaahara planned to implement programmes and eight matched comparison districts.

Figure 2. Sample sizes by household type

Source: Authors’ calculations.

Notes: *Respondents who claimed to be sole decision makers were not asked the autonomy questions. Women’s WEAI data is complete for household types I–III. In the results tables, panel V = I + II + III and panel VI = I + II + III + IV.

Table 2. Summary statistics by household type

	I. Men are sole decision makers		II. Men and women share decision-making		III. Women are decision makers (absent male decision maker)		IV. Women are sole decision makers		V. Women have complete WEAI data (I+II+III)		VI. All households (I+II+III+IV)
	N = 834		N = 844		N = 676		N = 763		N = 2,354		N = 3,117
Households where:	Mean	sd	Mean	sd	Mean	sd	Mean	sd	Mean	sd	Mean	sd
Dependent variables
Mother’s outcomes
diet diversity score (9 food groups)	3.79	1.08	3.87	1.08	3.74	1.06	3.64	1.03	3.81	1.07	3.77	1.07
body mass index	20.23	2.74	20.51	2.7	20.29	2.39	20.68	2.8	20.35	2.63	20.43	2.68
Children’s outcomes
diet diversity score (7 food groups)	3.52	1.09	3.62	1.07	3.53	1.04	3.47	1.05	3.56	1.07	3.54	1.07
height-for-age z-score	−1.82	1.24	−1.77	1.23	−1.77	1.22	−1.83	1.16	−1.79	1.23	−1.8	1.21
weight-for-height z-score	−0.98	1.07	−0.83	1.01	−0.76	1.03	−0.91	1.01	−0.86	1.04	−0.87	1.03
weight-for-age z-score	−1.71	1.06	−1.6	1.05	−1.54	1.02	−1.69	1.04	−1.62	1.04	−1.64	1.04
Explanatory variables
Production diversity
production diversity index (9 food groups)	4.44	1.48	4.7	1.42	4.59	1.41	3.85	1.51	4.58	1.44	4.4	1.49
Women’s empowerment indicators
women’s empowerment score	0.58	0.2	0.57	0.22	0.6	0.21	n.a.	n.a.	0.58	0.21	0.58	0.21
number of groups woman is an active member of	0.19	0.56	0.28	0.67	0.26	0.71	0.31	0.72	0.24	0.65	0.26	0.66
number of domains woman has some control over income decisions	1.99	1.37	1.94	1.53	2.1	1.4	2.66	1.43	2.01	1.44	2.17	1.47
relative autonomy index score in agricultural activities	0.29	1.37	0.21	1.52	0.14	1.5	n.a.	n.a.	0.22	1.47	0.22	1.47
hours spent in paid & unpaid work	11.35	2.92	11.33	2.94	11.07	3.07	10.99	2.84	11.26	2.97	11.19	2.95
gender parity gap (=0 if woman has gender parity, ‘gap’ if not)	n.a.	n.a.	0.25	0.23	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.
Child characteristics
=1 if girl child	0.46	0.5	0.46	0.5	0.47	0.5	0.48	0.5	0.46	0.5	0.47	0.5
child age (months)	27.97	16.04	26.85	16.91	27.87	16.13	32.59	16.18	27.54	16.39	28.78	16.48
=1 if child is under 2	0.43	0.5	0.48	0.5	0.45	0.5	0.32	0.47	0.45	0.5	0.42	0.49
Mother’s characteristics
mother’s age in years	27.56	6.69	26.29	5.96	25.74	5.62	28.77	6.04	26.58	6.18	27.12	6.22
mother’s height (centimeters)	151.52	5.91	151.68	5.34	152.03	5.43	151.71	5.62	151.72	5.58	151.72	5.59
years of education	3.97	4.28	4.32	4.31	4.57	4.27	3.65	3.82	4.27	4.29	4.12	4.19
Household characteristics
household size	6.21	2.2	6.72	2.44	5.52	1.96	4.07	1.51	6.2	2.28	5.68	2.3
dependency ratio	1.18	0.84	1.05	0.74	1.27	1.01	2.1	1.11	1.16	0.86	1.39	1.01

Note: n.a. = not applicable

Figure 3. Contribution of the 5 domains to women’s disempowerment

Source: Authors’ calculations.

Figure 4. Contribution of the 10 indicators to women’s disempowerment

Source: Authors’ calculations.

Table 3. Summary of coefficient estimates: Mother’s dietary diversity, production diversity, women’s empowerment and interactions

	Dependent variable: Mother’s dietary diversity
	Model 1: aggregate empowerment	Model 2: group membership	Model 3: control over income	Model 4: autonomy in production	Model 5: workload	Model 6: gender parity gap
I. Households where men are sole decision makers, N = 819
Production diversity index	0.088	0.065**	0.101**	0.061**	0.121
	(0.078)	(0.030)	(0.047)	(0.029)	(0.082)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.374	−0.005	0.091	−0.030	0.007
	(0.549)	(0.263)	(0.073)	(0.085)	(0.036)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.041	−0.009	−0.018	0.007	−0.005
	(0.118)	(0.054)	(0.016)	(0.017)	(0.007)
II. Households where men and women share decision-making, N = 833
Production diversity index	0.265**	0.082***	0.093**	0.069***	−0.088*	0.024*
	(0.077)	(0.026)	(0.038)	(0.026)	(0.087)	(0.040)
Women’s empowerment indicator	1.158	0.174**	0.053	−0.057	−0.026	−0.502
	(0.695)	(0.229)	(0.074)	(0.078)	(0.036)	(0.549)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.343	−0.059**	−0.011	0.002	0.014	0.178
	(0.137)	(0.048)	(0.016)	(0.017)	(0.008)	0.111
III. Households with women decision makers (absent male decision maker), N = 672
Production diversity index	0.101***	0.101***	0.047**	0.078***	0.130
	(0.082)	(0.031)	(0.050)	(0.030)	(0.112)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.443*	0.578	−0.047	0.069	0.031
	(0.636)	(0.212)	(0.079)	(0.076)	(0.047)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.039**	−0.111	0.014	−0.014	−0.005*
	(0.128)	(0.043)	(0.017)	(0.014)	(0.010)
IV. Households where women are sole decision makers, N = 752
Production diversity index		0.076***	0.103**		−0.097
		(0.028)	(0.052)		(0.086)
Women’s empowerment indicator		−0.063	0.054		−0.055
		(0.196)	(0.064)		(0.034)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		0.038	−0.006		0.017*
		(0.044)	(0.015)		(0.008)
V. Households with complete women’s WEAI data: panels I, II and III, N = 2,324
Production diversity index	0.169***	0.091***	0.090**	0.078***	0.065
	(0.045)	(0.016)	(0.026)	(0.016)	(0.054)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.654*	0.260	0.032	−0.005	0.004
	(0.353)	(0.133)	(0.044)	(0.046)	(0.023)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.151**	−0.063	−0.005	−0.002	0.001*
	(0.072)	(0.027)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.005)
VI. All households: panels I, II, III, and IV, N = 3,076
Production diversity index		0.089***	0.096**		0.022
		(0.014)	(0.023)		(0.045)
Women’s empowerment indicator		0.169	0.044		−0.014
		(0.116)	(0.035)		(0.019)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		−0.037	−0.006		0.005*
		(0.025)	(0.008)		(0.004)

Note: ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1. Robust standard errors in parentheses. Controls include mother’s age, age squared, height, years of education, household type (for panels V & VI), log of household size, dependency ratio, socio economic status index, dummies for caste, intervention group, agro ecological area, and development zone, and climate variables (per cent deviations of 2011 annual rainfall, minimum temperature, and maximum temperature from the long run mean).

Table 4. Summary of coefficient estimates: Mother’s body mass index, production diversity, women’s empowerment and interactions

	Dependent variable: Mother’s BMI
	Model 1: aggregate empowerment	Model 2: group membership	Model 3: control over income	Model 4: autonomy in production	Model 5: workload	Model 6: gender parity gap
I. Households where men are sole decision makers, N = 819
Production diversity index	0.117	0.030	0.204*	0.026	0.164
	(0.179)	(0.086)	(0.113)	(0.084)	(0.203)
Women’s empowerment indicator	1.464	0.428	0.347	0.037	0.019
	(1.402)	(0.477)	(0.241)	(0.225)	(0.091)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.153	−0.038	−0.083	−0.000	−0.013
	(0.294)	(0.098)	(0.052)	(0.046)	(0.017)
II. Households where men and women share decision-making, N = 833
Production diversity index	0.024	−0.024	−0.038	−0.020	−0.152	−0.052
	(0.172)	(0.073)	(0.103)	(0.068)	(0.332)	(0.103)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.845	0.011	0.026	0.047	−0.129	−1.261
	(1.564)	(0.548)	(0.222)	(0.178)	(0.133)	(1.377)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.082	0.014	0.007	0.007	0.012	0.140
	(0.298)	(0.109)	(0.043)	(0.036)	(0.028)	(0.267)
III. Households with women decision makers (absent male decision maker), N = 672
Production diversity index	0.174	−0.113	0.061	−0.086	−0.762***
	(0.210)	(0.073)	(0.124)	(0.070)	(0.256)
Women’s empowerment indicator	2.383	−0.530	0.345	−0.272	−0.345***
	(1.702)	(0.524)	(0.249)	(0.184)	(0.108)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.411	0.141	−0.064	0.036	0.063***
	(0.336)	(0.106)	(0.049)	(0.035)	(0.022)
IV. Households where women are sole decision makers, N = 752
Production diversity index		0.052	0.022		−0.341
		(0.083)	(0.147)		(0.333)
Women’s empowerment indicator		0.547	0.127		−0.151
		(0.403)	(0.179)		(0.127)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		−0.108	−0.001		0.034
		(0.089)	(0.042)		(0.029)
V. Households with complete women’s WEAI data: panels I, II and III, N = 2,324
Production diversity index	0.115	−0.020	0.073	−0.013	−0.184
	(0.107)	(0.044)	(0.064)	(0.041)	(0.155)
Women’s empowerment indicator	1.554*	−0.052	0.226*	−0.057	−0.132**
	(0.890)	(0.300)	(0.137)	(0.114)	(0.065)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.213	0.042	−0.040	0.014	0.016
	(0.175)	(0.061)	(0.027)	(0.023)	(0.013)
VI. All households: panels I, II, III, and IV, N = 3,076
Production diversity index		−0.006	0.069		−0.189
		(0.038)	(0.057)		(0.141)
Women’s empowerment indicator		0.159	0.211**		−0.128**
		(0.233)	(0.103)		(0.059)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		−0.004	−0.033		0.017
		(0.048)	(0.021)		(0.012)

Note: ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1. Robust standard errors in parentheses. Controls identical to Table 3.

Table 5. Summary of coefficient estimates: Children’s dietary diversity, production diversity, women’s empowerment and interactions

	Dependent variable: Children’s dietary diversity
	Model 1: aggregate empowerment	Model 2: group membership	Model 3: control over income	Model 4: autonomy in production	Model 5: workload	Model 6: gender parity gap
I. Households where men are sole decision makers, N = 754
Production diversity index	0.142*	0.042	0.103*	0.055*	0.220**
	(0.083)	(0.029)	(0.053)	(0.030)	(0.103)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.963	−0.357	0.114	0.013	0.050
	(0.594)	(0.397)	(0.085)	(0.091)	(0.043)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.147	0.079	−0.023	−0.005	−0.015*
	(0.126)	(0.080)	(0.018)	(0.019)	(0.009)
II. Households where men and women share decision-making, N = 730
Production diversity index	0.159*	0.069**	0.065	0.077**	0.016	0.022
	(0.086)	(0.032)	(0.048)	(0.031)	(0.124)	(0.043)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.748	−0.098	−0.016	0.087	−0.019	−1.124*
	(0.702)	(0.216)	(0.088)	(0.090)	(0.055)	(0.653)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.148	0.024	0.004	−0.017	0.005	0.216*
	(0.138)	(0.045)	(0.017)	(0.018)	(0.011)	(0.128)
III. Households with women decision makers (absent male decision maker), N = 619
Production diversity index	−0.041	0.012	−0.069	−0.004	−0.028
	(0.089)	(0.034)	(0.055)	(0.032)	(0.126)
Women’s empowerment indicator	−0.299	0.288	−0.112	−0.102	−0.020
	(0.664)	(0.222)	(0.099)	(0.103)	(0.055)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	0.064	−0.061	0.031	0.019	0.002
	(0.134)	(0.042)	(0.021)	(0.022)	(0.011)
IV. Households where women are sole decision makers, N = 714
Production diversity index		0.099***	0.111**		−0.008
		(0.031)	(0.053)		(0.097)
Women’s empowerment indicator		0.198	0.059		−0.040
		(0.150)	(0.067)		(0.037)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		−0.052	−0.009		0.009
		(0.036)	(0.016)		(0.008)
V. Households with complete women’s WEAI data: panels I, II and III, N = 2,103
Production diversity index	0.108**	0.044**	0.042	0.046***	0.085
	(0.049)	(0.018)	(0.030)	(0.018)	(0.068)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.578	−0.070	0.004	−0.010	0.010
	(0.368)	(0.160)	(0.051)	(0.059)	(0.029)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.104	0.015	0.002	0.001	−0.003
	(0.075)	(0.032)	(0.011)	(0.012)	(0.006)
VI. All households: panels I, II, III, and IV, N = 2,817
Production diversity index		0.059***	0.058**		0.062
		(0.015)	(0.026)		(0.054)
Women’s empowerment indicator		0.013	0.018		−0.005
		(0.114)	(0.040)		(0.023)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		−0.003	0.000		−0.000
		(0.024)	(0.009)		(0.005)

Note: ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1. Robust standard errors in parentheses. Controls include a girl dummy, the child’s age and age squared, whether the child is under 2, mother’s age, age squared, height, and years of education, household type (for panels V & VI), log of household size, dependency ratio, socio economic status index, dummies for caste, intervention group, agro ecological area, and development zone, and climate variables (per cent deviations of 2011 annual rainfall, minimum temperature, and maximum temperature from the long run mean).

Table 6. Summary of coefficient estimates: Children’s height-for-age z-score, production diversity, women’s empowerment and interactions

	Dependent variable: Children’s height-for-age z-score
	Model 1: aggregate empowerment	Model 2: group membership	Model 3: control over income	Model 4: autonomy in production	Model 5: workload	Model 6: gender parity gap
I. Households where men are sole decision makers, N = 805
Production diversity index	−0.014	0.018	−0.009	0.037	0.030
	(0.084)	(0.031)	(0.050)	(0.030)	(0.099)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.156	−0.376	−0.038	0.116	−0.019
	(0.588)	(0.287)	(0.081)	(0.089)	(0.041)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	0.078	0.079	0.018	−0.018	0.000
	(0.125)	(0.064)	(0.017)	(0.020)	(0.009)
II. Households where men and women share decision-making, N = 824
Production diversity index	0.076	0.007	0.061	0.013	0.036	−0.046
	(0.070)	(0.029)	(0.042)	(0.028)	(0.100)	(0.037)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.572	−0.177	0.145*	0.010	0.007	−1.057*
	(0.556)	(0.208)	(0.074)	(0.075)	(0.043)	(0.562)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.110	0.031	−0.025*	0.015	−0.002	0.238**
	(0.110)	(0.045)	(0.014)	(0.016)	(0.009)	(0.111)
III. Households with women decision makers (absent male decision maker), N = 670
Production diversity index	0.144*	0.033	0.102*	0.033	0.104
	(0.086)	(0.033)	(0.057)	(0.031)	(0.096)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.829	0.064	0.158	0.014	0.040
	(0.650)	(0.229)	(0.109)	(0.095)	(0.043)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.178	−0.003	−0.031	−0.005	−0.007
	(0.130)	(0.047)	(0.022)	(0.018)	(0.009)
IV. Households where women are sole decision makers, N = 741
Production diversity index		0.034	−0.021		0.044
		(0.032)	(0.060)		(0.098)
Women’s empowerment indicator		−0.097	−0.072		−0.016
		(0.161)	(0.077)		(0.041)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		0.052	0.024		0.001
		(0.037)	(0.018)		(0.009)
V. Households with complete women’s WEAI data: panels I, II and III, N = 2,299
Production diversity index	0.056	0.015	0.045*	0.024	0.056
	(0.045)	(0.018)	(0.027)	(0.017)	(0.056)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.439	−0.180	0.076	0.050	0.010
	(0.338)	(0.140)	(0.048)	(0.050)	(0.024)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.057	0.039	−0.011	−0.003	−0.003
	(0.068)	(0.030)	(0.009)	(0.011)	(0.005)
VI. All households: panels I, II, III, and IV, N = 3,040
Production diversity index		0.022	0.030		0.047
		(0.015)	(0.025)		(0.047)
Women’s empowerment indicator		−0.107	0.029		−0.000
		(0.105)	(0.041)		(0.020)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		0.030	−0.001		−0.002
		(0.023)	(0.008)		(0.004)

Note: ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1. Robust standard errors in parentheses. Controls identical to Table 5.

Table 7. Summary of coefficient estimates: Children’s weight-for-height z-score, production diversity, women’s empowerment and interactions

	Dependent variable: Children’s weight-for-height z-score
	Model 1: aggregate empowerment	Model 2: group membership	Model 3: control over income	Model 4: autonomy in production	Model 5: workload	Model 6: gender parity gap
I. Households where men are sole decision makers, N = 806
Production diversity index	0.131	0.053*	0.069	0.051*	0.067
	(0.084)	(0.032)	(0.044)	(0.029)	(0.090)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.481	0.156	0.052	0.084	0.031
	(0.701)	(0.240)	(0.080)	(0.100)	(0.040)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.144	−0.044	−0.011	−0.013	−0.002
	(0.145)	(0.054)	(0.016)	(0.021)	(0.008)
II. Households where men and women share decision-making, N = 826
Production diversity index	0.059	0.066**	0.058	0.060**	0.203*	0.037
	(0.083)	(0.031)	(0.048)	(0.029)	(0.121)	(0.043)
Women’s empowerment indicator	−0.174	0.212	0.002	0.042	0.056	−0.304
	(0.650)	(0.196)	(0.084)	(0.091)	(0.051)	(0.650)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.000	−0.035	0.000	−0.006	−0.013	0.085
	(0.134)	(0.040)	(0.016)	(0.020)	(0.010)	(0.135)
III. Households with women decision makers (absent male decision maker), N = 670
Production diversity index	−0.043	−0.021	−0.046	−0.024	−0.060
	(0.090)	(0.031)	(0.054)	(0.030)	(0.098)
Women’s empowerment indicator	−0.409	0.174	−0.053	−0.043	−0.020
	(0.639)	(0.229)	(0.101)	(0.091)	(0.041)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	0.031	−0.021	0.010	0.011	0.003
	(0.138)	(0.047)	(0.021)	(0.019)	(0.008)
IV. Households where women are sole decision makers, N = 747
Production diversity index		0.027	−0.068		−0.002
		(0.030)	(0.053)		(0.090)
Women’s empowerment indicator		−0.059	−0.108		−0.039
		(0.172)	(0.068)		(0.036)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		0.019	0.035**		0.004
		(0.038)	(0.016)		(0.008)
V. Households with complete women’s WEAI data: panels I, II and III, N = 2,302
Production diversity index	0.072	0.037**	0.038	0.032*	0.052
	(0.049)	(0.018)	(0.028)	(0.017)	(0.060)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.150	0.179	0.018	0.022	0.013
	(0.384)	(0.128)	(0.050)	(0.056)	(0.025)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.069	−0.032	−0.003	−0.001	−0.002
	(0.081)	(0.027)	(0.010)	(0.012)	(0.005)
VI. All households: panels I, II, III, and IV, N = 3,049
Production diversity index		0.034**	0.017		0.020
		(0.015)	(0.024)		(0.049)
Women’s empowerment indicator		0.093	−0.017		−0.007
		(0.109)	(0.039)		(0.020)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		−0.015	0.006		0.001
		(0.023)	(0.008)		(0.004)

Note: ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1. Robust standard errors in parentheses. Controls identical to Table 5.

Table 8. Summary of coefficient estimates: Children’s weight-for-age z-score, production diversity, women’s empowerment and interactions

	Dependent variable: Children’s weight-for-age z-score
	Model 1: aggregate empowerment	Model 2: group membership	Model 3: control over income	Model 4: autonomy in production	Model 5: workload	Model 6: gender parity gap
I. Households where men are sole decision makers, N = 816
Production diversity index	0.059	0.057*	0.049	0.067**	0.113
	(0.080)	(0.029)	(0.042)	(0.027)	(0.083)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.165	−0.150	0.011	0.126	0.024
	(0.652)	(0.192)	(0.069)	(0.090)	(0.037)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	0.003	0.018	0.004	−0.022	−0.005
	(0.133)	(0.041)	(0.014)	(0.019)	(0.007)
II. Households where men and women share decision-making, N = 829
Production diversity index	0.040	0.032	0.051	0.032	0.117	−0.000
	(0.074)	(0.028)	(0.041)	(0.027)	(0.108)	(0.038)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.110	0.029	0.069	−0.010	0.027	−0.616
	(0.602)	(0.190)	(0.075)	(0.083)	(0.047)	(0.604)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.014	0.000	−0.010	0.016	−0.008	0.129
	(0.119)	(0.041)	(0.014)	(0.018)	(0.009)	(0.118)
III. Households with women decision makers (absent male decision maker), N = 672
Production diversity index	0.030	0.003	0.021	0.001	0.014
	(0.084)	(0.029)	(0.053)	(0.028)	(0.100)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.040	0.179	0.041	−0.012	0.010
	(0.629)	(0.226)	(0.104)	(0.098)	(0.043)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.047	−0.020	−0.009	0.003	−0.001
	(0.130)	(0.045)	(0.022)	(0.020)	(0.009)
IV. Households where women are sole decision makers, N = 749
Production diversity index		0.035	−0.059		0.035
		(0.030)	(0.056)		(0.089)
Women’s empowerment indicator		−0.099	−0.114		−0.028
		(0.166)	(0.071)		(0.036)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		0.043	0.037**		0.002
		(0.038)	(0.016)		(0.008)
V. Households with complete women’s WEAI data: panels I, II and III, N = 2,317
Production diversity index	0.048	0.031*	0.043*	0.033**	0.073
	(0.045)	(0.016)	(0.025)	(0.016)	(0.055)
Women’s empowerment indicator	0.157	0.015	0.044	0.030	0.016
	(0.357)	(0.124)	(0.046)	(0.053)	(0.024)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity	−0.027	0.002	−0.006	0.001	−0.004
	(0.072)	(0.025)	(0.009)	(0.011)	(0.005)
VI. All households: panels I, II, III, and IV, N = 3,066
Production diversity index		0.033**	0.022		0.050
		(0.014)	(0.023)		(0.045)
Women’s empowerment indicator		−0.001	−0.003		−0.001
		(0.102)	(0.038)		(0.019)
Women’s empowerment × production diversity		0.008	0.005		−0.001
		(0.022)	(0.008)		(0.004)

Note: ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1. Robust standard errors in parentheses. Controls identical to Table 5.

Alkire, S., Meinzen-Dick, R., Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A. R., Seymour, G., & Vaz, A. (2013). The women’s empowerment in agriculture index. World Development, 52, 71–91. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.06.007

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