What does it Mean to Make a ‘Joint’ Decision? Unpacking Intra-household Decision Making in Agriculture: Implications for Policy and Practice

Figures & data

Figure 1. Map of Nwoya District, portraying the surveyed sub-counties (Alero, Purongo, Anaka, Koch Goma) and location of the in-depth study site (Lodi).

Table 1. Summary statistics

Variables	N	Mean	SD
Age male spouse	474	39.37	12.24
Age female spouse	474	33.77	11.64
Education of male spouse	474	7.92	1.77
Education of female spouse	474	8.24	1.18
Total family size	474	6.92	2.68
Proportion of adult men in household (ages 16+)	474	0.25	0.13
Proportion of adult women in household (ages 16+)	474	0.23	0.10
Proportion of young male in households (ages 0–15)	474	0.26	0.18
Proportion of young female in households (ages 0–15)	474	0.26	0.17
Total cultivable land held by household (acres)	473	10.62	13.16
Housing % Dried bricks (wall)	474	97.6	n/a
% Mud & dung (floor)	474	87.34	n/a
% Thatch (roof)	474	97.47	n/a

Source: Own calculations based on author’s survey.

Table 2. Counts and standardised residuals χ² test for independence of sex and decision-making on adoption of agricultural practices and consumption decisions

		Joint couple		Sole male Spouse		Sole female Spouse		Others
		Count	standardised Residuals χ2	Count	standardised Residuals χ2	Count	standardised Residuals χ2	Count	standardised Residuals χ2
Intercropping	Female (n = 252)	189	2.06	14	−6.03	49	3.92		n/a
	Male (n = 222)	117	−2.20	101	6.42	4	−4.18		n/a
Fallow	Female (n = 198)	146	1.95	25	−4.39	27	3.07		n/a
	Male (n = 170)	85	−2.10	84	4.74	1	−3.32		n/a
Seed Selection	Female (n = 178)	93	1.47	6	−6.86	79	6.25		n/a
	Male (n = 181)	68	−1.46	112	6.81	1	−6.19		n/a
All three CSA adoption	Female	428	3.30	45	−10.01	155	7.72		n/a
	Male	270	−3.45	297	10.48	6	−8.08		n/a
Children expenses	Female (n = 469)	324	0.76	96	−2.81	44	3.52	5	0.23
	Male (n = 467)	296	−0.76	159	2.82	8	−3.52	4	−0.23
Food expenses	Female (n = 474)	164	1.58	38	0.31	270	−1.11	2	−1.00
	Male (n = 471)	125	−1.59	34	−0.31	306	1.12	6	1.01
Major household purchases	Female (n = 259)	152	1.03	87	−1.45	12	−0.25	8	1.59
	Male (n = 304)	152	−0.95	134	1.34	16	0.23	2	−1.46
All consumption decisions	Female	640	1.78	221	−2.96	326	0.19	15	0.47
	Male	573	−1.75	327	2.91	330	−0.18	12	−0.46

Source: Own calculations based on author’s survey.

Table 3. Decision-making perceptions on adoption of agricultural practices and consumption decisions between spouses

	Spousal agreement on DM in CSA adoption				Spousal disagreement on DM in CSA adoption
CSA practice	Husband alone	Wife alone	Joint decision couple	M: Husband alone F: Joint Couple	M: Husband alone F: Wife alone	M: Joint couple F: Husband alone	M: Joint couple F: Wife alone	M: Wife alone F: Joint Couple	M: Wife Alone F: Husband Alone	Others forms of disagreement	Total
Intercropping (n = 160)	2,50%	1,30%	40,60%	35,60%	9,40%	3,80%	6,90%	0,00%	0,00%	0,00%	100,00%
Fallow(n = 99)	8,10%	0,00%	38,40%	33,30%	9,10%	4,00%	7,10%	0,00%	0,00%	0,00%	100,00%
Seed Selection (n = 88)	3,40%	0,00%	23,90%	30,70%	29,50%	0,00%	12,50%	0,00%	0,00%	0,00%	100,00%
Mean	4,33%	0,60%	35,74%	33,70%	14,41%	2,89%	8,38%	0,00%	0,00%	0,00%	100%
	Spousal agreement on DM in consumption decisions				Spousal disagreement on DM in consumption decisions
Consumptiondecisions	Husband alone	Wife alone	Joint Decision couple	M: Husband Alone F: Joint Couple	M: Husband alone F: Wife alone	M: Joint Couple F: Husband alone	M: Joint Couple F: Wife alone	M: Wife Alone F: Joint Couple	M: Wife Alone F: Husband Alone	Others formsof disagreement	Total
Children expenses(n = 465)	9.25%	0.00%	45.16%	21.29%	3.01%	11.18%	6.45%	1.72%	0,00%	1,94%	100,00%
Major household purchases (n = 201)	14.93%	0.00%	33.33%	27.36%	3.48%	14.93%	1.00%	2.99%	0,50%	1,49%	100,00%
Food expenses (n = 471)	0.85%	38.22%	10.19%	2.34%	4.03%	2.55%	13.80%	22.08%	4,25%	1,70%	100,00%
Mean	6.77%	15.83%	28.58%	14.51%	3.52%	8.27%	8.53%	10.38%	1,85%	1,76%	100%

Source: Own calculations, based on authors’ survey. (M = male spouse respondent; F = female spouse respondent).

Table 4. Perception of joint decision-making from the focus group discussion card exercise

	Husband alone		Wife alone		Joint couple
Type of Decision Male group: n = 17; Female group: n = 16	Male Group	Female Group	Male Group	Female Group	Male Group	Female Group
To buy a cow	1	4	0	0	15	13
To sell a cow	4	4	0	0	12	13
To use own bulls for ox-ploughing	16	17	0	0	0	0
What and where to plant	10	3	1	1	5	13
When to clear the land	1	4	0	3	15	10
How will the land will be cleared	1	4	0	0	15	13
When to start planting	4	0	0	2	12	15
When to weed*	2	0	12	14	1	3
When to harvest*	4	0	0	13	11	4
To hire labour	3	10	0	2	13	5
To leave land fallow	10	2	1	6	5	9
How much, where and when to sell crops	4	0	0	1	12	16
How to spend income from crops or livestock	6	1	0	0	10	16
To start a new agricultural practice*	0	9	0	0	15	8
To start growing a new crop	4	1	0	0	12	16
To get a loan	2	0	0	1	14	16
To sell land	11	14	0	0	5	3
Who will inherit the land	4	0	0	0	12	17
Usage of money from savings group	2	0	0	0	14	17
To use harvest income for personal use	4	0	0	0	12	17
To use harvest income for major expenditures	1	0	0	0	15	17
To use harvest income for school fees and children necessities	2	0	0	1	14	16
What to cook	0	0	13	17	3	0
Average	25.7%	18.7%	7.6%	15.6%	66.8%	68.3%

Source: Focus Group Discussions * indicates n = 15 in male group, one participant left temporarily the group to attend phone calls.

Table 5. Interactions between couples for seed selection (direct observations)

Couple interactions during seed selection (n = 16)		Maize	Beans
Did not discuss		4	3
Discussed	Man dominated the discussion	8	3
	Woman suggested the variety, husband approves (final decision-maker)	2	10
	Equal say during discussions, man preferred variety chosen	1	0
	Instant agreement (both partners wanted the same variety)	1	0

Source: Own calculations, based on experimental game.

Table 6. Selection of quotes on what constitutes joint decision-making

Household 1	Household 2		Household 3
Couple	Male Spouse (MS)	Female Spouse (FS)	Male Spouse (MS)	Female Spouse (FS)
What crops to plant - (Wife) In case we disagree on what to plant in the field, we sit and discuss together - (Husband) I will explain the reasons why I want to plant these crops in this field. After she has understood why it’s a better option then she will agree. - (Wife) But only when I have understood. - (Husband) When I want to do something (take a decision) I explain to her and as the wife who respects her husband she will accept as I’m the head of the household	Budgeting for money ‘I tell my wife to sit down so that we plan on how to use the money. We together plan on how much to spend on school fees, savings, farming and other necessities.’	What crops to plant ‘He normally decides what to plant. But last season it was my idea to plant beans on this field, I told him my idea and he allowed it.’	What crops to plant ‘Most of the ideas are given by me but she can also sometimes give her ideas and I can accept to use her ideas sometimes. So, it’s a joint decision when she gives an idea about it even if it is used or not. But at the end, as the household head, I make the final decision.’	Budgeting for money ‘ We plan together for the money after crop sales. I feel we make the decision together when he informs me about it even if he uses the money the way he wants it. If he does not inform me, then it means he has made the decision alone. If he at least asks me, then I would feel part of the decision even if he makes the final decision.’

Source: Author’s own participant observation.

Table 7. Typologies of perceived joint decision-making by women

Types of joint decision		Illustrative quote
A. No conversation between the couple	A.1: Male spouse ‘informs’ the woman about the decision after the fact	‘Even after my husband has already done something and tells me (after the fact), I feel part of the decision because he has informed me’
	A.2: Male spouse ‘informs’ the woman about the decision before the fact	‘A man will always inform me even if the final decision is made by him, sometimes I keep quiet and when I keep quiet it means that I have accepted his proposal and participated in the decision’
B. Conversation between the couple	B.1: Male spouse ‘informs’ the woman about the decision before the fact. Female spouse’s ideas are neither given nor considered	‘The decision on how to spend the income from crops and livestock is made jointly. In most cases he informs me, and by the fact that he has informed me I feel that I have participated in the decision’
	B.2: Female spouses’ ideas are considered, but man has the final say	‘Anyone can come up with the idea to discuss, we discuss it but it is the man who has the final say. He can either accept or refuse your idea’

Source: Authors’ observations during experimental game, focus group discussions and participant observation.