How to Target Households in Adaptive Social Protection Systems? Evidence from Humanitarian and Development Approaches in Niger

Figures & data

Table 1. Explaining differences between households selected by PMT and by HEA

Variable	Coefficient
Household size	0.0355***
	(0.00538)
Woman-headed household	0.100*
	(0.0524)
Polygamous family	0.0805*
	(0.0443)
Has cart	−0.0306
	(0.0424)
Has hoe	−0.157**
	(0.0724)
Number of small ruminants	−0.0269***
	(0.00464)
Number of large ruminants	−0.0786***
	(0.0169)
Cultivated land	0.000246
	(0.00105)
Non-Productive asset index	−0.0539***
	(0.0144)
Average monthly revenues in cash	−1.28e−06**
	(5.34e−07)
Food coverage based on own production (months)	−0.0156**
	(0.00675)
Number of sectors in which the household is engaged	−0.0397*
	(0.0209)
Share of income from remittances	−0.000423
	(0.0331)
Observations	864
Mean of Y	0.434

Notes: Dependent variable = 1 if PMT and HEA resulted in different beneficiary selection outcomes; 0 otherwise. Robust standard errors in parentheses. A probit model was used, and marginal effects are reported. p-values derived from tests of equality: * = 10 per cent, ** = 5 per cent, *** = 1 per cent.

Figure 1. Poverty and food insecurity during the lean and harvest seasons.

Notes: Households experiencing persistent poverty or food insecurity are below the poverty line or food insecure threshold in both 2011 survey rounds, that is, during the lean and harvest seasons. Households experiencing transient poverty or food insecurity are below the poverty line or food insecure threshold during one season only. Corresponding tables can be found in the Supplementary Appendix.

Table 2. Comparison of ECVM/A data with the HEA variables used for targeting

HEA variables	HEA survey instrument	ECVM/A survey instrument
Household size	Asks the respondent to report on household size. Normally, nongovernmental organisations use the following definition of household: a group of people living under the same roof and sharing the same pot of food.	Asks the name of each household member and then adds members to obtain the total household size. The survey defines the household as a group of persons, related or otherwise, living habitually in the same dwelling, pooling their resources, sharing their meals, and recognising the authority of the same person known as the household head. This question is asked during both the first and the second survey visits. The average household size of the two rounds is used.
Marital status of household head	Asks about the marital status of the household head. Household head is defined by the household, commonly the man or husband of the family or a woman who is a widow or divorced.	Asks about the marital status of the household head. Household head is defined as the person who is accepted as such by the other household members. The head generally exercises authority as the economic provider in the household. This question is asked during the first survey visit.
Number of poultry owned by the household	Asks about the number of poultry owned by the household.	Asks separately about the number of chickens, guinea fowl, and other birds the household owns. The number of animals in these categories are added up to construct the corresponding HEA variable. This information was only collected during the second survey visit.
Number of small ruminants owned by the household	Asks about the number of small ruminants the household owns. This includes goats, sheep, and donkeys.	Asks three different questions about the number of goats, sheep, and donkeys owned by the household. The number of animals in the responses is added up to construct the corresponding HEA variable. This information was only collected during the second survey visit.
Number of big ruminants owned by the household	Asks about the number of big ruminants the household owns. This includes cattle, camels, and horses.	Asks three different questions on the number of cattle, camels, and horses owned by the household. The number of animals in the responses is added up to construct the corresponding HEA variable. This information was only collected during the second survey visit.
Land surface cultivated by the household (hectares)	Asks a question about the total land surface cultivated by the household (hectares).	Asks about the area cultivated with each crop. The areas cultivated are added to construct the corresponding HEA variable. This information was only collected during the first survey visit.
The duration of food coverage using own agricultural production (months)	Asks one question on the duration of food coverage using own agricultural production (months).	The instrument includes a detailed food consumption module that asks about the consumption of various items during the seven days previous to the survey and about whether the food consumed was purchased or own produced. To construct the corresponding HEA variable, two variables constructed from the consumption module are used as follows: food consumption resulting from the consumption of own production, divided by total food consumption and multiplied by 12. Questions related to this indicator were asked during both the first and the second survey visits. The average of the indicator across the two seasons is used.
Average monthly household revenue	Asks one question on the average monthly household revenue (without specifying a time frame). This is defined as money earned (in cash only) by household members.	The instrument has a detailed module to capture sources of income during separate time frames depending on the question. Income from the following three sources are added up to construct the HEA variable: (a) employment income for each household member, (b) income from household enterprises, and (c) nonemployment income. This information was only collected during the first survey visit.

Notes: The table provides an exhaustive list of the variables used by HEA. The information used is based on the HEA methodological guide developed by the alliance (Bourahla et al., 2014). The way HEA questions are framed may slightly vary across the various nongovernmental organisations using HEA.

Table 3. Inclusion errors based on selected welfare measures, %

Welfare measure	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
	Random	PMT	HEA	Diff. (2) − (3)	Diff. (1) − (2)	Diff. (1) − (3)
Consumption per capita, lean	70	50	72	−23***	20***	−2
Consumption per capita, harvest	70	44	71	−27***	26***	−1
Total consumption per capita	70	43	72	−29***	27***	−2
FCS, lean	70	70	52	18***	0	18***
FCS, harvest	70	65	61	4	5*	9***

Notes: Total consumption per capita represents the average consumption per capita across the two seasons. Inclusion errors are defined as the share of ineligible beneficiaries. The sample is restricted to beneficiaries (N = 243). A household is considered eligible if it is ranked below the 30th percentile in the distribution of the given welfare metric. All models assume the same number of beneficiaries (corresponding to 30 per cent of all households). FCS = food consumption score. Diff. = difference. p-values derived from tests of equality: * = 10 per cent, ** = 5 per cent, *** = 1 per cent.

Table 4. Characteristics of households selected by PMT and HEA

Indicator	(1)	(2)	(1) − (2)
	PMT	HEA	PMT − HEA
Household demographics
Household size	9.1	4.8	4.31***
Woman-headed household	0.11	0.26	−15%***
Polygamous family	0.39	0.07	33%***
Assets
Has cart	0.21	0.05	16%***
Has hoe	1	0.89	10%***
Number of small ruminants	2.9	1.1	1.9***
Number of large ruminants	0.5	0.0	0.50***
Cultivated land	17	5	12***
Non-Productive asset index	−0.46	−0.25	−0.22**
Other
Average monthly revenues in cash	28,068	13,957	14,111***
Food coverage based on own production (months)	3.5	2.0	1.5***
Number of sectors in which the household is engaged	2.5	1.9	0.64***
Share of income from remittances	9.2	21.1	−12.2%***

Notes: A household is considered eligible if it is ranked below the 30th percentile in the distribution of the given welfare metric. All models assume the same number of beneficiaries (corresponding to 30 per cent of all households). The sample is restricted to beneficiaries (N = 243). The non-productive asset index was constructed using principal component analysis based on selected variables, including dwelling characteristics and ownership of household goods such as telephone, beds, chairs, furniture, and so on. p-values derived from tests of equality: * = 10 per cent, ** = 5 per cent, *** = 1 per cent.

Table 5. Inclusion errors, selected approaches, %

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
Welfare measure	Universal	PMT	Geographical poverty	Combined poverty	Diff. (2) − (3)	Diff. (2) − (4)	Diff. (3) − (4)
a. Geographical and combined poverty targeting approaches
Consumption per capita, lean	70	50	58	48	−9*	1	10**
Consumption per capita, harvest	70	44	54	43	−10**	1	11**
Total consumption per capita	70	43	54	40	−11**	3	14***
FCS, lean	70	70	69	70	1	−1	−2
FCS, harvest	70	65	56	61	9**	4	−5
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
Welfare measure	Universal	HEA	Geographical food insecurity	Combined food insecurity	Diff. (2) − (3)	Diff. (2) − (4)	Diff. (3) − (4)
b. Geographical and combined food insecurity targeting approaches
Consumption per capita, lean	70	72	74	75	−1	−3	−2
Consumption per capita, harvest	70	71	68	64	2	7	4
Total consumption per capita	70	72	70	69	2	3	1
FCS, lean	70	52	40	43	12***	9**	−3
FCS, harvest	70	61	70	57	−9**	4	14***

Notes: Total consumption per capita represents the average consumption per capita across the two seasons. Inclusion errors are defined as the share of ineligible beneficiaries. The sample is restricted to beneficiaries (N = 243). A household is considered eligible if it is ranked below the 30th percentile in the distribution of the given welfare metric. Except for the universal model, all models assume the same number of beneficiaries (corresponding to 30 per cent of all households). FCS = food consumption score. Diff. = difference. p-values derived from tests of equality: * = 10 per cent, ** = 5 per cent, *** = 1 per cent.

Bourahla, L., Evrard-Diakite, M., Malam, A., & Boulinaud, M. (2014). Guide méthodologique de ciblage basé sur la méthode HEA. Unpublished manuscript. Brussels: Alliance Sécurité Alimentaire au Niger.

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