Economic Transfers and Social Cohesion in a Refugee-Hosting Setting

Figures & data

Figure 1. Programme booklet introducing the motivation behind targeting Colombian nationals: Ecuador, a welcoming country.

Source: WFP programme materials, cash and voucher intervention, 2011.

Table 1. Baseline characteristics of respondents and test of equivalence at baseline

	All	Control	Treatment	p-value of diff.
Colombian	0.34	0.42	0.31	0.06
Colombian: economic motivation for migration	0.09	0.10	0.09	0.72
Colombian: political motivation for migration	0.09	0.10	0.09	0.56
Colombian: personal motivation for migration	0.06	0.06	0.05	0.54
Colombian: resided in urban centre > 20 years	0.10	0.16	0.07	0.00
Female	0.81	0.80	0.81	0.63
Age	39.01	39.27	38.91	0.71
Married	0.27	0.27	0.26	0.87
Secondary education or higher	0.36	0.33	0.38	0.27
Household size	3.75	3.92	3.69	0.06
Number of children aged 0–5 years	0.60	0.56	0.61	0.31
Number of children aged 6–15 years	0.89	0.99	0.86	0.05
Wealth index: 2nd quintile	0.19	0.14	0.21	0.00
Wealth index: 3rd quintile	0.21	0.22	0.21	0.82
Wealth index: 4th quintile	0.21	0.20	0.21	0.73
Wealth index: 5th quintile	0.20	0.26	0.18	0.05
Resident in urban centre ≤ 20 years	0.40	0.40	0.40	0.89
Carchi Province	0.39	0.33	0.40	0.48
N	1,878	505	1,373

Notes: p-values are reported from Wald tests on the equality of means of treatment and control for each variable. Standard errors are clustered at the cluster level.

Table 2. Baseline social cohesion aggregate outcomes, individual indicators and test of equivalence at baseline

	All	Control	Treatment	p-value of diff.
Trust in individuals and social connectedness (standardised index)	−0.03	−0.00	−0.04	0.54
Trust in individuals and social connectedness (sum; range: 3–65)	11.84	12.36	11.65	0.15
(1) I trust most people*	2.46	2.44	2.47	0.77
(2) I can rely on my neighbour for sending mail*	2.56	2.49	2.58	0.37
(3) I can rely on my neighbour to take care of my house if I am away*	2.81	2.79	2.82	0.75
(4) Network size (Number of people who would lend US$10 in time of need)	2.13	2.33	2.06	0.06
(5) Network size (Number of people who would lend US$100 in time of need)	1.88	2.30	1.73	0.11
Personal agency (standardised index)	0.05	0.00	0.07	0.50
Personal agency (sum; range: 5–20)	17.73	17.59	17.78	0.45
(1) My life is determined by my own actions*	3.78	3.73	3.80	0.25
(2) I have the power to take important decision to change my life*	3.67	3.60	3.69	0.16
(3) I am satisfied with my life*	3.55	3.53	3.56	0.69
(4) I am capable of protecting my own interests*	3.81	3.80	3.81	0.92
(5) Overall, how do you feel lately? (1 = very unhappy – 4 = very happy)	2.92	2.93	2.92	0.70
Attitudes accepting diversity (standardised index)	0.04	0.00	0.06	0.49
Attitudes accepting diversity (sum; range: 3–12)	9.01	8.91	9.04	0.40
(1) Cultural diversity is good*	3.61	3.61	3.61	0.95
(2) Xenophobia is not an issue*	1.92	1.84	1.96	0.26
(3) In my community people from different nationalities live well together*	3.47	3.47	3.48	0.90
Lack of discrimination (last 6 months, standardised index)	−0.12	−0.00	−0.16	0.05
Lack of discrimination (last 6 months, sum; range: 0–10)	9.07	9.18	9.03	0.15
(1) Freedom from discrimination due to ethnicity (=1)	0.94	0.95	0.93	0.06
(2) Freedom from discrimination due to gender (=1)	0.95	0.97	0.95	0.05
(3) Freedom from discrimination due to social condition (=1)	0.73	0.73	0.73	1.00
(4) Freedom from discrimination due to occupation (=1)	0.86	0.87	0.85	0.25
(5) Freedom from discrimination due to political views (=1)	0.96	0.98	0.95	0.00
(6) Freedom from discrimination due to disability (=1)	0.90	0.91	0.90	0.24
(7) Freedom from discrimination due to nationality (=1)	0.86	0.85	0.87	0.67
(8) Freedom from discrimination due to religious beliefs (=1)	0.94	0.96	0.93	0.09
(9) Freedom from discrimination due to physical appearance (=1)	0.95	0.96	0.94	0.05
(10) Freedom from discrimination due to other reasons (=1)	0.98	0.98	0.98	0.92
Confidence in institutions (standardised index)	0.02	0.00	0.03	0.72
Confidence in institutions (sum; range: 6–24)	18.98	18.94	18.99	0.84
(1) The Government would help my family in an emergency*	3.01	3.02	3.01	0.88
(2) Politicians represent my interests*	2.02	2.01	2.02	0.90
(3) If I am victim of a crime, I can go to the police to get help*	3.54	3.54	3.54	0.97
(4) I have the space to participate in the decisions of my community*	2.98	3.04	2.96	0.44
(5) I have the right to social basic assistance*	3.74	3.69	3.77	0.26
(6) I feel part of the community*	3.68	3.64	3.70	0.42
Social participation (standardised index)	−0.09	0.00	−0.12	0.16
Social participation (sum; range: 0–4)	0.71	0.78	0.68	0.22
(1) Participation in agricultural association or union (=1)	0.06	0.10	0.05	0.07
(2) Participation in religious or spiritual group (=1)	0.28	0.29	0.28	0.86
(3) Participation in community association or political group (=1)	0.24	0.23	0.24	0.88
(4) Participation in other groups (NGOs, cultural) (=1)	0.13	0.16	0.11	0.12
Social cohesion (standardised index)	−0.06	0.00	−0.08	0.31
Social cohesion (sum; range: 35–115)	67.34	67.76	67.18	0.43

Notes: p-values are reported from Wald tests on the equality of means of treatment and control for each variable. Standard errors are clustered at the cluster level. *Values range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree).

Table 3. ANCOVA models of impact of transfers on social cohesion measures (standardised indices)

	Trust in individuals		Agency		Attitudes accepting diversity		Lack of discrimination		Confidence in institutions		Social participation		Social cohesion
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)	(13)	(14)
Pooled treatment	0.05	0.10	0.18	−0.00	0.11	0.02	0.05	0.06	0.15	0.06	0.10	0.02	0.17	0.08
	(0.07)	(0.08)	(0.09)**	(0.05)	(0.07)	(0.06)	(0.07)	(0.10)	(0.08)*	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.08)	(0.07)**	(0.07)
Colombian	0.01	0.09	−0.02	−0.35	0.20	0.04	−0.17	−0.14	−0.12	−0.27	0.00	−0.15	−0.09	−0.26
	(0.07)	(0.11)	(0.07)	(0.16)**	(0.06)***	(0.12)	(0.07)**	(0.14)	(0.06)*	(0.14)**	(0.05)	(0.08)*	(0.06)	(0.14)*
Pooled treatment X Colombian		−0.11		0.46		0.22		−0.03		0.22		0.21		0.24
		(0.13)		(0.16)***		(0.13)*		(0.14)		(0.15)		(0.10)**		(0.15)
R^2	0.07	0.07	0.05	0.07	0.02	0.02	0.09	0.09	0.07	0.07	0.07	0.07	0.12	0.12
N	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878
Net treatment Colombian		−0.01		0.46		0.25		0.03		0.28		0.24		0.32
		(0.10)		(0.17)***		(0.13)*		(0.11)		(0.14)**		(0.08)***		(0.14)**

Notes: Standard errors in parenthesis clustered at the cluster level. Aggregate outcomes are compiled using standardised indicators. All regressions include the following covariates at baseline: respondent attainment of secondary education or higher (dummy); age of respondent; female (dummy); married (dummy); household size; number of children aged 0–5 years; number of children aged 6–15 years; dummies for wealth quintiles (based on wealth index); resident in urban centre ≤ 20 years (dummy); residing in Carchi Province (dummy); dependent variables at baseline. *p < .1; **p < .05; ***p < .01.

Table 4. ANCOVA models of impact of transfers by treatment modalities on social cohesion measures (standardised indices)

	Trust in individuals	Agency	Attitudes accepting diversity	Lack of discrimination	Confidence in institutions	Social participation	Social cohesion
Treatment = food	0.21	0.14	0.13	−0.01	0.15	0.13	0.19
	(0.10)**	(0.12)	(0.10)	(0.10)	(0.09)	(0.11)	(0.10)*
Treatment = cash	−0.03	0.22	0.05	0.06	0.17	0.03	0.14
	(0.08)	(0.09)**	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)**	(0.08)	(0.08)*
Treatment = voucher	0.02	0.16	0.15	0.08	0.13	0.16	0.19
	(0.08)	(0.10)*	(0.08)*	(0.08)	(0.09)	(0.08)**	(0.08)**
R^2	0.07	0.05	0.02	0.09	0.07	0.07	0.12
N	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878
F test: food = voucher	3.14	0.04	0.07	1.14	0.06	0.08	0.01
p-value	0.08	0.84	0.79	0.29	0.81	0.78	0.91
F test: cash = voucher	0.33	0.71	2.90	0.12	0.30	2.43	0.76
p-value	0.57	0.40	0.09	0.73	0.58	0.12	0.38
F test: food = cash	5.06	0.63	0.87	0.55	0.05	0.82	0.29
p-value	0.03	0.43	0.35	0.46	0.82	0.37	0.59

Notes: Standard errors in parenthesis clustered at the cluster level. Aggregate outcomes are compiled using standardised indicators. All regressions include the following covariates at baseline: respondent attainment of secondary education or higher (dummy); age of respondent; female (dummy); married (dummy); household size; number of children aged 0–5 years; number of children aged 6–15 years; dummies for wealth quintiles (based on wealth index); resident in urban centre ≤ 20 years (dummy); residing in Carchi Province (dummy); dependent variables at baseline. *p < .1; **p < .05; ***p < .01.

Table 5. ANCOVA models of differential impact of transfers on social cohesion measures (standardised indices) with respect to Colombian migration reasons

	Trust in individuals	Agency	Attitudes accepting diversity	Lack of discrimination	Confidence in institution	Social participation	Social cohesion
Pooled treatment	0.10	−0.00	0.02	0.06	0.06	0.02	0.08
	(0.08)	(0.06)	(0.06)	(0.10)	(0.07)	(0.08)	(0.07)
Colombian: economic motivation for migration	0.41	−0.52	−0.08	−0.10	−0.47	0.03	−0.26
	(0.20)**	(0.27)*	(0.18)	(0.17)	(0.23)**	(0.13)	(0.20)
Colombian: political motivation for migration	0.03	−0.35	0.13	−0.37	−0.18	−0.15	−0.34
	(0.14)	(0.22)	(0.18)	(0.24)	(0.22)	(0.11)	(0.26)
Colombian: personal motivation for migration	0.13	−0.33	0.09	0.03	0.01	−0.18	−0.07
	(0.21)	(0.19)*	(0.15)	(0.29)	(0.20)	(0.16)	(0.22)
Colombian: resided in urban centre > 20 years	−0.06	−0.25	0.03	−0.12	−0.30	−0.19	−0.28
	(0.14)	(0.14)*	(0.13)	(0.16)	(0.14)**	(0.12)	(0.13)**
Treatment X Colombian: economic motivation for migration	−0.34	0.69	0.35	0.03	0.48	0.05	0.37
	(0.22)	(0.27)**	(0.21)*	(0.18)	(0.24)**	(0.15)	(0.20)*
Treatment X Colombian: political motivation for migration	−0.11	0.40	0.06	−0.04	0.07	0.45	0.19
	(0.15)	(0.23)*	(0.21)	(0.25)	(0.23)	(0.14)***	(0.27)
Treatment X Colombian: personal motivation for migration	−0.16	0.49	0.14	−0.10	−0.02	0.17	0.10
	(0.23)	(0.20)**	(0.18)	(0.29)	(0.20)	(0.19)	(0.22)
Treatment X Colombian: resided in urban centre > 20 years	0.07	0.30	0.31	−0.02	0.24	0.12	0.24
	(0.16)	(0.15)**	(0.16)*	(0.21)	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.16)
R^2	0.07	0.07	0.03	0.09	0.08	0.08	0.13
N	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878	1,878
F test: economic = political	1.53	3.58	2.15	0.04	5.62	4.94	1.04
p-value	0.22	0.06	0.14	0.84	0.02	0.03	0.31
F test: economic = personal	0.37	0.70	0.84	0.24	4.49	0.33	1.06
p-value	0.54	0.40	0.36	0.63	0.04	0.57	0.30
F test: personal = political	0.04	0.18	0.11	0.02	0.10	2.03	0.08
p-value	0.84	0.68	0.74	0.87	0.75	0.16	0.78
F test: Colombian long resided = political	1.03	0.15	1.25	0.00	0.44	2.82	0.04
p-value	0.31	0.70	0.27	0.95	0.51	0.10	0.85
F test: Colombian long resided = economic	3.31	1.98	0.04	0.04	0.83	0.11	0.40
p-value	0.07	0.16	0.85	0.83	0.36	0.75	0.53
F test: Colombian long resided = personal	0.82	0.72	0.65	0.06	1.19	0.04	0.35
p-value	0.37	0.40	0.42	0.81	0.28	0.84	0.56

Notes: Standard errors in parenthesis clustered at the cluster level. Aggregate outcomes are compiled using standardised indicators. All regressions include the following covariates at baseline: respondent attainment of secondary education or higher (dummy); age of respondent; female (dummy); married (dummy); household size; number of children ages 0–5; number of children ages 6–15; dummies for wealth quintiles (based on wealth index); resident in urban centre ≤ 20 years (dummy); residing in Carchi Province (dummy); dependent variables at baseline. *p < .1; **p < .05; ***p < .01.