Social Identity, Behavior, and Personality: Evidence from India

Figures & data

Table 1. Summary statistics by caste

Variables	Pooled (1)	Upper caste (2)	OBC (3)	SCST (4)	p-Value UC vs. OBC t-test (5)	p-Value UC vs. SCST t-test (6)	p-Value OBC vs. SCST t-test (7)
Panel A: Behavioral preferences
Competitiveness	0.31 (0.46)	0.31 (0.46)	0.32 (0.46)	0.31 (0.46)	0.91	0.98	0.95
Confidence	0.32 (0.46)	0.31 (0.46)	0.38 (0.48)	0.28 (0.45)	0.01	0.29	0.01
Risk preference	46.71 (18.85)	46.14 (18.37)	48.12 (20.15)	47.97 (19.56)	0.08	0.13	0.93
Egalitarianism	0.15 (0.36)	0.13 (0.34)	0.19 (0.39)	0.18 (0.39)	0.01	0.03	0.84
Panel B: Personality traits
Extraversion	4.62 (1.41)	4.76 (1.43)	4.28 (1.25)	4.25 (1.34)	0.00	0.00	0.77
Agreeableness	5.13 (1.18)	5.19 (1.15)	5.07 (1.22)	4.83 (1.23)	0.08	0.00	0.02
Conscientiousness	5.27 (1.27)	5.29 (1.27)	5.31 (1.29)	5.11 (1.26)	0.83	0.03	0.06
Emotional stability	4.56 (1.35)	4.52 (1.38)	4.65 (1.26)	4.62 (1.26)	0.14	0.3	0.76
Openness to experience	5.33 (1.15)	5.43 (1.13)	5.14 (1.20)	5.04 (1.15)	0.00	0.00	0.29
Locus of control	7.29 (2.02)	7.27 (2.11)	7.51 (1.76)	7.19 (1.79)	0.07	0.60	0.04
Grit	3.35 (0.57)	3.39 (0.57)	3.28 (0.55)	3.21 (0.50)	0.00	0.00	0.14
Panel C: Control variables
Female	0.49 (0.50)	0.58 (0.49)	0.28 (0.45)	0.24 (0.43)	0.00	0.00	0.27
Age	19.75 (0.96)	19.72 (0.86)	19.78 (1.17)	19.83 (1.12)	0.35	0.07	0.57
Hindu	0.91 (0.28)	0.92 (0.27)	0.87 (0.33)	0.91 (0.27)	0.006	0.88	0.07
Private school	0.70 (0.46)	0.82 (0.38)	0.52 (0.50)	0.31 (0.46)	0.00	0.00	0.00
High socioeconomic status	0.71 (0.45)	0.82 (0.38)	0.46 (0.5)	0.37 (0.48)	0.00	0.00	0.02
Raven’s test score	6.45 (2.28)	6.81 (2.13)	5.77 (2.37)	5.45 (2.45)	0.00	0.00	0.1
Sample size	2045	1433	325	287

Notes: Standard deviation in parentheses. In Columns 5, 6, and 7, we report the p-value from a two-sided t-test comparing upper castes (UCs) to OBCs, upper castes to SCSTs, and OBCs to SCSTs, respectively. In Panel B, the maximum possible score for the Big Five traits, locus of control, and grit is 7, 13, and 8, respectively. In Panel C, the maximum score for Raven’s test is 10. High socioeconomic status takes a value 1 if both parents have at least a college degree or if monthly family income exceeds INR 50,000, and 0 otherwise. Hindu takes value 1 if belonging to Hindu religion, 0 otherwise. Private school takes a value 1 if the individual was enrolled in a private high school, 0 otherwise.

Table 2. SUR estimates: behavioral preferences

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
	Competitiveness	Confidence	Risk preference	Egalitarianism
SCST	−0.087** (0.036)	−0.072* (0.037)	0.367 (1.482)	0.065** (0.029)
OBC	−0.079** (0.032)	0.029 (0.033)	0.136 (1.329)	0.055** (0.026)
Female	−0.171*** (0.022)	−0.099*** (0.023)	−6.285*** (0.904)	0.006 (0.017)
Age	−0.002 (0.012)	0.004 (0.013)	0.210 (0.507)	−0.010 (0.010)
Hindu	−0.055 (0.036)	0.008 (0.037)	−1.341 (1.473)	−0.027 (0.028)
Private School	−0.053** (0.026)	−0.026 (0.027)	1.240 (1.082)	0.062*** (0.021)
High socioeconomic status	0.029 (0.026)	−0.007 (0.027)	0.248 (1.081)	−0.030 (0.021)
Raven’s test score	0.010 (0.011)	0.009 (0.011)	1.217*** (0.448)	−0.006 (0.009)
Constant	0.660** (0.264)	0.378 (0.272)	49.619*** (10.878)	0.279 (0.209)
H0: SCST = OBC (p-value)	0.04 (0.84)	6.32 (0.01)	0.02 (0.88)	0.11 (0.74)
Observations	1918	1918	1918	1918
R-squared	0.106	0.063	0.080	0.058

Notes: All regressions include session fixed effects. Robust standard errors in parentheses. See notes of Table 1 for definitions of right-hand side variables.

***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.

Table 3. SUR estimates: personality traits

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
	Agreeableness	Extraversion	Conscientiousness	Emotional stability	Openness to experience	Locus of control	Grit
SCST	−0.202** (0.088)	−0.228*** (0.087)	−0.250*** (0.088)	−0.049 (0.089)	−0.254*** (0.086)	−0.211** (0.088)	−0.279*** (0.088)
OBC	−0.040 (0.078)	−0.264*** (0.077)	0.039 (0.078)	0.010 (0.079)	−0.192** (0.076)	−0.018 (0.078)	−0.158** (0.078)
Female	0.260*** (0.052)	0.089* (0.052)	0.128** (0.053)	−0.210*** (0.053)	0.042 (0.051)	−0.074 (0.052)	0.184*** (0.052)
Age	−0.016 (0.029)	−0.019 (0.029)	0.017 (0.029)	−0.010 (0.029)	0.016 (0.028)	0.037 (0.029)	−0.011 (0.029)
Hindu	−0.175** (0.086)	0.035 (0.085)	−0.042 (0.087)	−0.237*** (0.087)	−0.072 (0.084)	−0.024 (0.087)	−0.120 (0.086)
Private school	−0.070 (0.064)	0.128** (0.063)	−0.069 (0.065)	−0.047 (0.065)	0.041 (0.063)	−0.107* (0.064)	−0.086 (0.064)
High socioeconomic status	0.042 (0.064)	−0.021 (0.063)	−0.129** (0.065)	−0.005 (0.065)	0.051 (0.063)	−0.089 (0.064)	−0.012 (0.064)
Raven’s test score	0.023 (0.026)	0.083*** (0.026)	−0.021 (0.026)	0.031 (0.026)	0.103*** (0.026)	0.033 (0.026)	0.021 (0.026)
Constant	0.427 (0.624)	0.311 (0.618)	0.143 (0.629)	0.662 (0.631)	−0.032 (0.613)	−0.179 (0.628)	0.677 (0.627)
H0: SCST = OBC (p-value)	2.9 (0.09)	0.15 (0.7)	9.12 (0.002)	0.38 (0.54)	0.45 (0.5)	4.08 (0.04)	1.61 (0.2)
Observations	1651	1651	1651	1651	1651	1651	1651
R-squared	0.067	0.081	0.059	0.053	0.073	0.065	0.078

Notes: All regressions include session fixed effects. Robust standard errors in parentheses. See notes of Table 1 for definitions of right-hand side variables.

***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.

Table 4. SUR estimates: differences in behavioral preferences by socioeconomic status

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
	Competitiveness	Confidence	Risk Preference	Egalitarianism
SCST	−0.075 (0.049)	−0.072 (0.050)	0.388 (2.007)	0.091** (0.039)
OBC	−0.055 (0.048)	0.059 (0.049)	0.223 (1.966)	0.102*** (0.038)
High SES	0.042 (0.034)	0.004 (0.035)	0.285 (1.383)	−0.004 (0.027)
High SES × SCST	−0.018 (0.068)	0.013 (0.069)	−0.010 (2.779)	−0.038 (0.053)
High SES × OBC	−0.042 (0.062)	−0.058 (0.063)	−0.159 (2.541)	−0.082* (0.049)
Constant	0.655** (0.266)	0.388 (0.273)	49.627*** (10.947)	0.269 (0.210)
Observations	1918	1918	1918	1918
R-squared	0.107	0.064	0.080	0.059

Notes: Robust standard errors in parentheses. Other controls include age, gender, religion, private school, Raven’s test score, and session fixed effects.

***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.

Table 5. SUR estimates: differences in personality traits by socioeconomic status

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
	Agreeableness	Extraversion	Conscientiousness	Emotional Stability	Openness to Experience	Locus of Control	Grit
SCST	−0.227* (0.119)	−0.064 (0.117)	−0.230* (0.119)	−0.177 (0.120)	−0.209* (0.116)	−0.335*** (0.119)	−0.260** (0.119)
OBC	−0.087 (0.116)	−0.130 (0.115)	−0.015 (0.117)	−0.132 (0.117)	−0.183 (0.114)	−0.205* (0.116)	−0.115 (0.116)
High SES	0.018 (0.080)	0.078 (0.079)	−0.141* (0.081)	−0.095 (0.081)	0.069 (0.079)	−0.192** (0.081)	0.009 (0.081)
High SES × SCST	0.036 (0.167)	−0.320* (0.165)	−0.071 (0.168)	0.233 (0.168)	−0.101 (0.164)	0.204 (0.167)	−0.026 (0.168)
High SES × OBC	0.080 (0.149)	−0.199 (0.147)	0.108 (0.150)	0.226 (0.150)	−0.002 (0.146)	0.311** (0.149)	−0.074 (0.149)
Constant	0.437 (0.629)	0.178 (0.622)	0.099 (0.633)	0.751 (0.635)	−0.080 (0.617)	−0.113 (0.631)	0.672 (0.632)
Observations	1651	1651	1651	1651	1651	1651	1651
R-squared	0.067	0.084	0.060	0.055	0.073	0.067	0.079

Notes: Robust standard errors in parentheses. Other controls include age, gender, religion, private school, Raven’s test score, and session fixed effects.

***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.

Table 6. SUR estimates: differences in behavioral preferences by private school enrollment

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
	Competitiveness	Confidence	Risk Preference	Egalitarianism
SCST	−0.126*** (0.047)	−0.085* (0.048)	0.093 (1.939)	0.039 (0.037)
OBC	−0.067 (0.049)	−0.008 (0.051)	−1.935 (2.037)	0.042 (0.039)
Private school	−0.064* (0.033)	−0.042 (0.034)	0.510 (1.361)	0.047* (0.026)
Private school × SCST	0.102 (0.068)	0.015 (0.070)	−0.285 (2.809)	0.060 (0.054)
Private school × OBC	−0.027 (0.061)	0.060 (0.063)	3.464 (2.509)	0.017 (0.048)
Constant	0.666** (0.264)	0.387 (0.272)	50.060*** (10.883)	0.287 (0.209)
Observations	1918	1918	1918	1918
R-squared	0.108	0.064	0.081	0.058

Notes: Robust standard errors in parentheses. Other controls include age, gender, religion, high socioeconomic status, Raven’s test score, and session fixed effects.

***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.

Table 7. SUR estimates: differences in personality traits by private school enrollment

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
	Agreeableness	Extraversion	Conscientiousness	Emotional Stability	Openness to Experience	Locus of Control	Grit
SCST	−0.361*** (0.116)	−0.233** (0.115)	−0.326*** (0.117)	−0.253** (0.117)	−0.338*** (0.114)	−0.334*** (0.116)	−0.262** (0.116)
OBC	−0.148 (0.118)	−0.192 (0.117)	−0.126 (0.118)	−0.128 (0.119)	−0.382*** (0.115)	−0.159 (0.118)	−0.162 (0.118)
Private school	−0.159** (0.079)	0.149* (0.079)	−0.148* (0.080)	−0.161** (0.080)	−0.048 (0.078)	−0.194** (0.080)	−0.081 (0.080)
Private school × SCST	0.339** (0.167)	0.047 (0.165)	0.110 (0.168)	0.434*** (0.168)	0.116 (0.164)	0.235 (0.168)	−0.044 (0.168)
Private school × OBC	0.153 (0.147)	−0.129 (0.146)	0.273* (0.148)	0.198 (0.148)	0.315** (0.144)	0.220 (0.148)	0.011 (0.148)
Constant	0.485 (0.624)	0.289 (0.619)	0.205 (0.629)	0.737 (0.630)	0.039 (0.613)	−0.117 (0.628)	0.676 (0.628)
Observations	1651	1651	1651	1651	1651	1651	1651
R-squared	0.070	0.082	0.061	0.057	0.075	0.066	0.078

Notes: Robust standard errors in parentheses. Other controls include age, gender, religion, high socioeconomic status, Raven’s test score, and session fixed effects.

***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.