Improving introductory economics course content and delivery improves outcomes for women

Figures & data

Table 1. Intervention summary.

Class Element	Before Intervention	After Intervention
Lecture pedagogy and student behavior	Large lecture (200–260 students) with limited student interaction (i.e., predominantly listening and note-taking)
Lecture content	Standard introductory economic theory
Homework	Multiple choice and problem solving (numerical answer)
Exams	Multiple choice and problem solving (numerical answer)
Recitation % of final grade	5–10% of course grade (set by instructor)
Recitation grade basis	Attendance	Completion of group work
Recitation instructor (TA) behaviors	Homework review, lecture review, and demonstration of practice problems	Posing questions, facilitation of group work, coaching problem solving
Recitation student behavior	Listening and note taking, asking clarifying questions, or individual problem solving	Active learning and group work
Recitation content	Theory and abstract hypothetical examples	Theory and detailed real-world cases (e.g., news articles or real economic data)
Recitation instructor (TA) training	Focused on organizing a coherent lecture and designing a syllabus	Focused on supporting active and collaborative learning

Notes: This table describes how students’ experiences in the introductory economics courses changed and did not change with the intervention.

Table 2. Summary statistics.

	Panel A: School Sample			Panel B: Economics Sample
Variables	No Intro Econ	Intro Econ	Difference	Pre-Intervention	Post-Intervention	Difference
Female	0.48 (0.00)	0.38 (0.01)	0.09 (0.01)***	0.38 (0.01)	0.39 (0.01)	0.01 (0.01)
White	0.66 (0.00)	0.71 (0.00)	−0.06 (0.01)***	0.72 (0.01)	0.70 (0.01)	−0.02 (0.01)**
URM	0.11 (0.00)	0.10 (0.00)	0.01 (0.00)***	0.10 (0.00)	0.11 (0.01)	0.01 (0.01)
Asian American	0.08 (0.00)	0.10 (0.00)	−0.02 (0.00)***	0.10 (0.00)	0.11 (0.01)	0.01 (0.01)
International	0.03 (0.00)	0.06 (0.00)	−0.03 (0.00)***	0.06 (0.00)	0.07 (0.00)	0.01 (0.01)
First Generation	0.46 (0.00)	0.37 (0.01)	0.08 (0.01)***	0.38 (0.01)	0.36 (0.01)	−0.02 (0.01)*
Low Income	0.50 (0.00)	0.40 (0.01)	−0.10 (0.01)***	0.41 (0.01)	0.38 (0.01)	−0.03 (0.01)***
3+ in Family	0.94 (0.00)	0.95 (0.00)	0.02 (0.00)***	0.95 (0.00)	0.95 (0.00)	0.00 (0.00)
HS GPA	3.87 (0.01)	3.89 (0.01)	−0.02 (0.01)**	3.87 (0.01)	3.94 (0.01)	0.07 (0.01)***
SAT Verbal/100	6.42 (0.00)	6.53 (0.01)	−0.11 (0.01)***	6.52 (0.01)	6.55 (0.01)	0.03 (0.01)**
SAT Math/100	6.47 (0.01)	6.68 (0.01)	−0.21 (0.01)***	6.66 (0.01)	6.73 (0.01)	0.07 (0.02)***
Took AP Micro	0.06 (0.00)	0.06 (0.00)	0.00 (0.00)	0.06 (0.00)	0.06 (0.00)	0.00 (0.01)
AP Micro Score	3.85 (0.03)	3.30 (0.05)	0.55 (0.05)***	3.33 (0.06)	3.23 (0.08)	−0.10 (0.10)
Took AP Macro	0.06 (0.00)	0.07 (0.00)	−0.01 (0.00)***	0.07 (0.00)	0.08 (0.01)	0.01 (0.01)
AP Macro Score	3.81 (0.03)	3.26 (0.05)	0.55 (0.05)***	3.25 (0.06)	3.28 (0.08)	0.03 (0.01)
Arts & Sciences	0.54 (0.00)	0.69 (0.00)	−0.14 (0.01)***	0.69 (0.01)	0.67 (0.01)	−0.03 (0.01)**
Engineering	0.13 (0.00)	0.13 (0.00)	0.00 (0.00)	0.14 (0.00)	0.11 (0.01)	−0.02 (0.01)***
Business	0.06 (0.00)	0.17 (0.00)	−0.11 (0.00)***	0.15 (0.00)	0.20 (0.01)	0.05 (0.01)***
First Time Freshman				0.58 (0.01)	0.66 (0.01)	0.08 (0.01)***
First Micro Grade				2.79 (0.02)	2.94 (0.02)	0.15 (0.03)***
First Micro DFW				0.17 (0.00)	0.13 (0.01)	−0.05 (0.01)***
First Macro Grade				2.88 (0.02)	3.07 (0.03)	0.19 (0.03)***
First Macro DFW				0.15 (0.00)	0.08 (0.01)	−0.07 (0.01)***
N	29052	8727	37779	5860	2867	8727

Notes: Means and standard errors in parentheses for different variables. The school sample includes all students who were registered in any classes between fall 2015 and fall 2019. The no intro econ sample includes those students who never took an introductory economics course within that timeframe. The intro econ sample includes all students who took an introductory economics course within that timeframe. Difference is the no intro econ group mean minus the intro econ group mean, as well as the significance of the t-test comparing those two means. The economics sample includes all students who registered for their first introductory economics course between fall 2015 and fall 2019. Pre-intervention is all students who took their first introductory economics course before the intervention started in fall 2018. Post-intervention is all students who took their first introductory economics course after the intervention started in fall 2018. Difference is the post-intervention mean minus the pre-intervention mean, as well as the significance of the t-test comparing those two means.

***p < 0.01; **p < 0.05; *p < 0.1

Figure 1. Pre- to post-intervention differences by student gender.

Figure 2. Grades by gender and ethnicity, pre- and post-intervention.

Figure 3. Grades over time by gender.

Table 3. Grades and DFW rates.

	(1)		(2)		(3)		(4)
Overall Grades
Micro	Model 1a		Model 2a		Model 3a		Model 4a
Female	−0.02	(0.04)	−0.03	(0.05)	−0.03	(0.05)	−0.03	(0.05)
Intervention	0.04	(0.05)	0.01	(0.05)	0.02	(0.05)	0.02	(0.05)
Female X Intervention	0.22	(0.09)**	0.15	(0.08)*	0.15	(0.08)*	0.15	(0.08)*
Macro	Model 1b		Model 2b		Model 3b		Model 4b
Female	−0.08	(0.05)	−0.11	(0.05)**	−0.10	(0.05)**	−0.10	(0.05)*
Intervention	0.03	(0.06)	−0.01	(0.06)	0.01	(0.06)	0.01	(0.06)
Female X Intervention	0.22	(0.10)**	0.18	(0.10)*	0.15	(0.10)*	0.15	(0.09)
DFW
Micro	Model 1c		Model 2c		Model 3c		Model 4c
Female	0.01	(0.02)	0.02	(0.02)	0.02	(0.02)	0.02	(0.02)
Intervention	−0.03	(0.02)	−0.02	(0.02)	−0.02	(0.02)	−0.02	(0.02)
Female X Intervention	−0.10	(0.04)***	−0.08	(0.03)**	−0.07	(0.03)**	−0.07	(0.03)**
Macro	Model 1d		Model 2d		Model 3d		Model 4d
Female	0.02	(0.02)	0.02	(0.02)	0.02	(0.02)	0.02	(0.02)
Intervention	−0.01	(0.03)	0.00	(0.02)	−0.01	(0.02)	−0.01	(0.02)
Female X Intervention	−0.05	(0.04)	−0.04	(0.04)	−0.03	(0.04)	−0.03	(0.04)

Notes: Separately for Micro and Macro as well as separately for overall grades and DFW rates, estimated regression beta coefficients (and standard errors) for the main effect of gender, main effect of intervention pre vs. post, and interaction of intervention by gender across models that included (1) only structural controls, (2) the addition of prior academic experience controls, (3) the addition of prior economics coursework controls, and (4) the addition of family characteristics controls. Final sample of white students from the School of Arts and Sciences who took an introductory economics course between fall 2015 and fall 2019.

***p < 0.01; **p < 0.05; *p < 0.1

Figure 4. Grade distributions and DFW evolution by gender.