A Balancing Act: South African Geography teachers’ Implementation of Teacher-Centered and Learner-Centered Instructional Strategies in Their Classrooms

Figures & data

Table 1. Cronbach alpha values for the components of the instructional strategies in the geography education instrument.

Categories	Components	Cronbach alpha
Instructional strategies and methods	Teacher-centered instructional strategies	0.521
	Individual learner-centered instructional strategies	0.711
	Collaborative instructional strategies	0.757
Challenges with the implementation of learner-centered instructional strategies	Geography learners and learning materials	0.723
	Time-consuming, overloaded curriculum, and geography teachers’ skills.	0.736

Table 2. The geography teachers’ implementation of instructional strategies in their classrooms (n = 130).

Components	Items	Never	Seldom	Sometimes	Often	Usually	$\overline{\mathrm{X}}$	SD
Teacher-centered instructional strategies	Questions and answers	2 (1.5%)	1 (0.8%)	17 (13.1%)	43 (33.1%)	67 (51.5%)	4.32	0.85
	Assignments	0 (0%)	2 (1.5%)	26 (20%)	58 (44.6%)	44 (33.8%)	4.11	0.77
	Lectures and demonstrations by the teacher	3 (2.3%)	13 (10%)	24 (18.5%	37 (28.5%	53 (40.8%	3.95	1.10
	Completion of worksheets	10 (7.7%)	10 (7.7%)	28 (21.5%)	49 (37.7%)	33 (25.4%)	3.65	1.17
	Total						4.01	0.63
Individual instructional strategies	Learners reporting back in class	11 (8.5%)	13 (10.0%)	26 (20%)	60 (46.2%)	20 (15.4%)	3.50	1.13
	Fieldwork and fieldwork excursions	37 (28.5%)	36 (27.7%)	24 (18.5%)	26 (20.0%)	7 (5.4%)	2.46	1.25
	Games and simulation	46 (35.4%)	32 (24.6%)	26 (20.0%)	20 (15.4%)	6 (4.6%)	2.29	1.23
	Experiments	43 (33.1%)	42 (32.3%)	29 (22.3%)	12 (9.2)	4 (3.1%)	2.17	1.09
	Total						2.61	0.89
Collaborative instructional strategies	Enquiry-based learning	1 (0.8%)	9 (6.9%)	44 (33.8%)	46 (35.4%)	30 (23.1%)	3.73	0.92
	Cooperative learning (group work)	8 (6.2%)	28 (21.5%)	33 (25.4%)	39 (30%)	22 (16.9%)	3.30	1.17
	Problem-based learning and problem-solving activities	9 (6.9%)	22 (16.9%)	48 (36.9%)	40 (30.8%)	11 (8.5%)	3.17	1.04
	Debates	22 (16.9%)	36 (27.7%)	43 (33.1%)	22 (16.9%	7 (5.4%)	2.66	1.11
	Role-play	33 (25.4%)	32 (24.6%)	25 (19.2%)	30 (23.1%)	10 (7.7%)	2.63	1.30
	Total						3.10	0.76

Table 3. Relation between the geography teachers’ years of teaching and the implementation of teacher-centered instructional strategies.

					d-value
Items	Years of teaching	N	$\overline{X}$	SD	Early- career	Mid-career
Questions and answers	Early-career	49	4.31	0.77
	Mid-career	45	4.31	1.04	0.00
	Late-career	36	4.36	0.68	0.07	0.05
	Total	130	4.32	0.85
Assignments	Early-career	49	3.84	0.85
	Mid-career	45	4.27	0.65	0.51*
	Late-career	36	4.28	0.70	0.52*	0.02
	Total	130	4.11	0.77
Lectures and demonstrations by the teacher	Early-career	49	3.84	1.07
	Mid-career	45	4.02	1.08	0.17
	Late-career	36	4.03	1.18	0.16	0.00
	Total	130	3.95	1.10
Completion of worksheets	Early-career	49	3.27	1.22
	Mid-career	45	3.80	1.06	0.44*
	Late-career	36	4.00	1.10	0.60*	0.18
	Total	130	3.65	1.17

d-value: small effect: d ≈ 0.2; medium effect: d ≈ 0.5*; and large effect; d ≈ 0.8**.

Table 4. Relation between the geography teachers’ years of teaching and the implementation of individual instructional strategies.

					d-value
Items	Years of teaching	N	$\overline{\mathbf{X}}$	SD	Early- career	Mid-career
Learners reporting back in class	Early-career	49	3.37	1.17
	Mid-career	45	3.78	1.02	0.35
	Late-career	36	3.33	1.17	0.03	0.38
	Total	130	3.50	1.13
Fieldwork and fieldwork excursions	Early-career	49	2.12	1.15
	Mid-career	45	2.62	1.32	0.38
	Late-career	36	2.72	1.21	0.50*	0.08
	Total	130	2.46	1.25
Games and simulation	Early-career	49	2.06	1.14
	Mid-career	45	2.44	1.32	0.29
	Late-career	36	2.42	1.20	0.30	0.02
	Total	130	2.29	1.23
Experiments	Early-career	49	1.96	1.02
	Mid-career	45	2.20	1.10	0.22
	Late-career	36	2.42	1.13	0.40	0.19
	Total	130	2.17	1.09

d-value: small effect: d ≈ 0.2; medium effect: d ≈ 0.5*; and large effect; d ≈ 0.8**.

Table 5. Relation between the geography teachers’ years of teaching and the implementation of collaborative instructional strategies.

					d-value
Items	Years of teaching	N	$\overline{\mathbf{X}}$	SD	Early- career	Mid-career
Enquiry-based learning	Early-career	49	3.71	0.94
	Mid-career	45	3.84	1.00	0.13
	Late-career	36	3.61	0.80	0.11	0.23
	Total	130	3.73	0.92
Cooperative learning (group work)	Early-career	49	3.35	1.22
	Mid-career	45	3.36	1.07	0.01
	Late-career	36	3.17	1.23	0.15	0.15
	Total	130	3.30	1.17
Problem-based learning/problem-solving activities	Early-career	49	3.14	1.10
	Mid-career	45	3.27	1.05	0.11
	Late-career	36	3.08	0.94	0.05	0.17
	Total	130	3.17	1.04
Debates	Early-career	49	2.57	1.15
	Mid-career	45	2.76	1.19	0.15
	Late-career	36	2.67	0.96	0.08	0.07
	Total	130	2.66	1.11
Role-play	Early-career	49	2.47	1.29
	Mid-career	45	2.87	1.32	0.30
	Late-career	36	2.56	1.25	0.07	0.23
	Total	130	2.63	1.29

d-value: small effect: d ≈ 0.2; medium effect: d ≈ 0.5*; and large effect; d ≈ 0.8**.

Table 6. Challenges the geography teachers experience with the implementation of learner-centered instructional strategies in their classrooms (N = 130).

Components	Items	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Not sure	Agree	Strongly agree	$\overline{\mathrm{X}}$	SD
Geography learners and learning materials	Geography learners and their parents expect the geography teacher to teach the learners	3 (2.3%)	10 (7.7%)	17 (13.1%)	46 (35.4%)	54 (41.5%)	4.06	1.03
	The large number of learners per Geography class complicates the implementation of active learning strategies in the geography classroom	4 (3.1%)	10 (7.7%)	20 (15.4%)	40 (30.8%)	56 (43.1%)	4.03	1.09
	The focus on examination results hinders the implementation of active learning strategies in Geography education	6 (4.6%)	10 (7.7%)	28 (21.5%)	41 (31.5%)	45 (34.6%)	3.84	1.13
	Language barriers of Geography learners restrict active learning activities in the geography classroom	11 (8.5%)	10 (7.7%)	29 (30.8%)	40 (30.8)	40 (30.8%)	3.68	1.23
	There are not enough learning materials (resources) in Geography classrooms to do active learning	9 (6.9%)	16 (12.3%)	25 (19.2%)	41 (31.5%)	39 (30%)	3.65	1.23
	Total						3.81	0.81
Time-consuming, overloaded curriculum, and Geography teachers’ skills	An overloaded Geography curriculum causes Geography teachers not to implement active learning strategies	12 (9.2%	15 (11.5%)	24 (18.5%)	39 (30.0%)	40 (30.8%)	3.62	1.28
	Geography learners are not yet ready to take responsibility for their own learning	12 (9.2%)	15 (11.5%)	23 (17.7%)	41 (31.5%)	39 (30.0%)	3.62	1.28
	It is time-consuming to implement active learning strategies in the geography curriculum	20 (15.4%)	20 (15.4%)	36 (27.7%)	37 (28.5%)	17 (13.1%)	3.08	1.26
	Active teaching and learning strategies cause discipline problems in the geography classroom	31 (23.8%)	20 (15.4%)	23 (17.7%)	33 (25.4%	23 (17.7%)	2.98	1.44
	Geography teachers do not have the necessary skills to effectively implement active learning strategies in their classrooms	33 (25.4%)	29 (22.3%)	34 (26.2%)	28 (21.5%)	6 (4.6%)	2.58	1.21
	Total						3.22	0.89

Table 7. Relation between the geography teachers’ years of teaching and challenges with geography learners and learning materials.

					d-value
Items	Years of teaching	N	$\overline{\mathbf{X}}$	SD	Early- career	Mid-career
Geography learners and their parents expect the geography teacher to teach the learners	Early-career	49	4.31	0.96
	Mid-career	45	3.89	1.03	0.41*
	Late-career	36	3.94	1.09	0.33*	0.05
	Total	130	4.06	1.03
The large number of learners per geography class complicates the implementation of active learning strategies in the geography classroom	Early-career	49	4.06	1.18
	Mid-career	45	3.93	1.10	0.11
	Late-career	36	4.11	0.95	0.04	0.16
	Total	130	4.03	1.09
The focus on examination results hinders the implementation of active learning strategies in geography education	Early-career	49	3.96	1.06
	Mid-career	45	3.71	1.14	0.22
	Late-career	36	3.83	1.21	0.10	0.10
	Total	130	3.84	1.13
Language barriers of Geography learners restrict active learning activities in the geography classroom	Early-career	49	3.94	1.03
	Mid-career	45	3.73	1.18	0.17
	Late-career	36	3.25	1.44	0.48*	0.34
	Total	130	3.68	1.23
There are not enough learning materials (resources) in geography classrooms to do active learning	Early-career	49	4.04	1.14
	Mid-career	45	3.47	1.24	0.46*
	Late-career	36	3.36	1.22	0.56*	0.09
	Total	130	3.65	1.22

d-value: small effect: d ≈ 0.2; medium effect: d ≈ 0.5*; and large effect; d ≈ 0.8**.

Table 8. Relation between the geography teachers’ years of teaching and challenges with time, an overloaded curriculum, and geography teachers’ skills.

					d-value
Items	Years of teaching	N	$\overline{\mathbf{X}}$	SD	Early- career	Mid-career
An overloaded geography curriculum causes geography teachers not to implement active learning strategies	Early-career	49	3.67	1.36
	Mid-career	45	3.67	1.11	0.01
	Late-career	36	3.47	1.40	0.14	0.14
	Total	130	3.62	1.28
Geography learners are not yet ready to take responsibility for their own learning	Early-career	49	3.84	1.25
	Mid-career	45	3.53	1.36	0.22
	Late-career	36	3.42	1.20	0.34	0.09
	Total	130	3.62	1.28
It is time-consuming to implement active learning strategies in the geography curriculum	Early-career	49	3.08	1.22
	Mid-career	45	2.96	1.36	0.09
	Late-career	36	3.25	1.18	0.14	0.22
	Total	130	3.08	1.26
Learner-centered instructional strategies cause discipline problems in the geography classroom	Early-career	49	3.06	1.45
	Mid-career	45	2.87	1.41	0.13
	Late-career	36	3.00	1.51	0.04	0.09
	Total	130	2.98	1.44
Geography teachers do not have the necessary skills to effectively implement active learning strategies in their classrooms	Early-career	49	2.47	1.12
	Mid-career	45	2.67	1.28	0.15
	Late-career	36	2.61	1.27	0.11	0.04
	Total	130	2.58	1.21

d-value: small effect: d ≈ 0.2; medium effect: d ≈ 0.5*; and large effect; d ≈ 0.8**.