Delayed Enrollment and Student Involvement: Linkages to College Degree Attainment

Figures & data

Figure 1. Number of activities in which students were involved, comparison of delayers and nondelayers.

*Involvement differences are significant at the p < .001 level.

Figure 2. Level of student involvement by individual activities, comparison of delayers and nondelayers.

*Involvement differences in all activities are significant at the p < .001 level.

Table 1. Regression models testing whether covariates influence participation in high-impact practices (Model 1, ordinary least-squares regression; Models 2–6, logistic regression with odds ratios reported).

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
VARIABLES	Number of HIPs	Community	Internship	Mentoring	Research	Study Abroad
Delayed College Entry by 6 Months or More	−0.25**	0.71	0.59**	0.72	0.65	0.42**
	(0.09)	(0.15)	(0.11)	(0.16)	(0.19)	(0.13)
Socioeconomic Status (Reference Category: Lowest Quartile)
Second Quartile	−0.04	0.87	0.89	0.85	1.25	1.13
	(0.07)	(0.14)	(0.12)	(0.14)	(0.25)	(0.29)
Third Quartile	0.06	0.92	1.22	1.08	1.14	1.18
	(0.06)	(0.15)	(0.15)	(0.18)	(0.22)	(0.28)
Highest Quartile	0.28***	1.08	1.45**	1.19	1.74**	2.28***
	(0.07)	(0.17)	(0.17)	(0.19)	(0.31)	(0.52)
Female	0.22***	1.49***	1.37***	1.26*	0.90	1.80***
	(0.04)	(0.13)	(0.10)	(0.11)	(0.09)	(0.20)
Race (Reference Category: White)
Asian	0.02	1.08	0.93	0.97	1.80***	0.59**
	(0.06)	(0.14)	(0.10)	(0.13)	(0.23)	(0.10)
Black	0.09	1.00	0.95	1.59**	1.65**	0.74
	(0.07)	(0.16)	(0.11)	(0.26)	(0.28)	(0.18)
Hispanic	0.10	0.82	1.00	1.38*	1.67*	1.13
	(0.07)	(0.14)	(0.13)	(0.22)	(0.32)	(0.22)
Other	−0.00	1.16	0.81	1.16	1.59*	0.58
	(0.09)	(0.23)	(0.14)	(0.23)	(0.35)	(0.17)
Married or Formerly Married (2006)	−0.47***	0.79	0.34**	0.61	0.20*	0.12*
	(0.10)	(0.27)	(0.11)	(0.23)	(0.15)	(0.12)
Whether Has Biological Children (2006)	−0.13	0.52	0.83	0.95	1.08	0.38
	(0.12)	(0.20)	(0.21)	(0.33)	(0.56)	(0.30)
Hours Worked Weekly 2005 to 2006 (Reference Category: 0 hrs)
1–20 hrs	0.21***	1.43***	1.36***	1.12	1.29*	1.21
	(0.05)	(0.13)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.13)	(0.13)
21+ hrs	−0.11*	1.01	0.91	0.89	0.86	0.47***
	(0.04)	(0.11)	(0.08)	(0.11)	(0.12)	(0.08)
High School Grade Point Average (Reference Category: 0.00–2.00)
2.01–3.00	0.05	1.59	1.35	0.95	1.09	0.91
	(0.10)	(0.50)	(0.36)	(0.27)	(0.40)	(0.44)
3.01–3.50	0.20	2.08*	1.86*	0.99	1.20	1.49
	(0.10)	(0.66)	(0.49)	(0.30)	(0.45)	(0.71)
3.51–4.00	0.38**	2.12*	2.22**	1.23	1.61	1.99
	(0.12)	(0.68)	(0.62)	(0.38)	(0.61)	(0.95)
High School Composite Math/Reading Score	0.00	0.99	1.00	0.99	1.02	1.04***
	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Number of High School Cocurricular Activities	0.12***	1.14***	1.13***	1.18***	1.19***	1.11***
	(0.01)	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
Constant	.21	.11***	.29**	.14***	.02***	.00***
	(.19)	(.05)	(.12)	(.06)	(.01)	(.00)
Observations	5,982	5,982	5,982	5,982	5,982	5,982
R^2 (Ordinary Least Squares)/McFadden’s R^2 (Logistic)	.137	.038	.065	.035	.064	.135
Wald Chi-Square Value (18 df)		151.95	290.62	138.30	209.71	349.76

Note. Standard errors in parentheses. HIPs = High-Impact Practices.

*** p < .001. ** p < .01. * p < .05.

Table 2. Logistic regression models for bachelor’s degree attainment (odds ratios reported).

	(1)	(2)
VARIABLES	Model 1	Model 2
Delayed College Entry by 6 Months or More	0.35***	0.38***
	(0.06)	(0.06)
Number of High-Impact Postsecondary Activities		1.42***
		(0.05)
Socioeconomic Status (Reference Category: Lowest Quartile)
Second Quartile	1.07	1.10
	(0.15)	(0.15)
Third Quartile	1.29*	1.28
	(0.17)	(0.16)
Highest Quartile	1.96***	1.81***
	(0.25)	(0.23)
Female	1.12	1.04
	(0.09)	(0.08)
Race (Reference Category: White)
Asian	0.93	0.93
	(0.11)	(0.11)
Black	0.92	0.89
	(0.12)	(0.11)
Hispanic	0.90	0.87
	(0.12)	(0.13)
Other	0.95	0.94
	(0.16)	(0.15)
Married or Formerly Married (2006)	0.27***	0.33**
	(0.09)	(0.11)
Whether Has Biological Children (2006)	0.40**	0.42**
	(0.13)	(0.13)
Hours Worked Weekly 2005 to 2006 (Reference Category: 0 hrs)
1–20 hrs	1.30**	1.23*
	(0.12)	(0.12)
21+ hrs	0.62***	0.63***
	(0.06)	(0.06)
High School Grade Point Average (Reference Category: 0.00–2.00)
2.01–3.00	2.51**	2.43**
	(0.76)	(0.74)
3.01–3.50	4.98***	4.65***
	(1.55)	(1.47)
3.51–4.00	10.35***	9.29***
	(3.27)	(2.99)
High School Composite Math/Reading Score	1.03***	1.03***
	(0.01)	(0.01)
Number of High School Cocurricular Activities	1.07**	1.03
	(0.03)	(0.02)
Constant	0.04***	0.04***
	(0.02)	(0.01)
Observations	5,982	5,982
McFadden’s R^2	.183	.203
Wald Chi-Square Value (M1 – 18 df | M2 – 19 df)	696.47	692.53

Note. Standard errors in parentheses.

*** p < .001. ** p < .01. * p < .05.

Table 3. Logistic regression models for bachelor’s degree attainment, by activity (odds ratios reported).

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
VARIABLES	Community	Internship	Mentoring	Research	Study Abroad
Delayed College Entry by 6 Months or More	0.38***	0.38***	0.38***	0.38***	0.38***
	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.06)	(0.06)	(0.06)
Number of High-Impact Postsecondary Activities	1.55***	1.18**	1.53***	1.46***	1.42***
	(0.08)	(0.06)	(0.07)	(0.06)	(0.06)
Community-Based Project	0.68**
	(0.10)
Internship		1.85***
		(0.21)
Mentoring			0.72*
			(0.10)
Research With Faculty				0.84
				(0.12)
Study Abroad					1.00
					(0.15)
Socioeconomic Status (Reference Category: Lowest Quartile)
Second Quartile	1.09	1.11	1.09	1.10	1.10
	(0.15)	(0.16)	(0.15)	(0.16)	(0.15)
Third Quartile	1.26	1.26	1.28	1.28	1.28
	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.17)	(0.16)
Highest Quartile	1.78***	1.81***	1.79***	1.81***	1.81***
	(0.23)	(0.23)	(0.23)	(0.23)	(0.23)
Female	1.04	1.03	1.04	1.03	1.04
	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)
Race (Reference Category: White)
Asian	0.93	0.94	0.92	0.94	0.93
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)
Black	0.88	0.91	0.90	0.89	0.89
	(0.11)	(0.12)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)
Hispanic	0.85	0.88	0.87	0.87	0.87
	(0.12)	(0.13)	(0.13)	(0.13)	(0.13)
Other	0.95	0.98	0.94	0.95	0.94
	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.16)
Married or Formerly Married (2006)	0.34**	0.34**	0.33**	0.33**	0.33**
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)
Whether Has Biological Children (2006)	0.41**	0.42**	0.43**	0.42**	0.42**
	(0.12)	(0.13)	(0.13)	(0.13)	(0.13)
Hours Worked Weekly 2005 to- 2006 (Reference Category: 0 hrs)
1–20 hrs	1.23*	1.22*	1.22*	1.23*	1.23*
	(0.12)	(0.12)	(0.12)	(0.12)	(0.12)
21+ hrs	0.64***	0.63***	0.64***	0.63***	0.63***
	(0.07)	(0.06)	(0.06)	(0.07)	(0.06)
High School GPA (Reference Category: 0.00–2.00)
2.01–3.00	2.46**	2.37**	2.41**	2.42**	2.43**
	(0.75)	(0.75)	(0.74)	(0.75)	(0.74)
3.01–3.50	4.73***	4.52***	4.57***	4.63***	4.65***
	(1.48)	(1.47)	(1.44)	(1.47)	(1.47)
3.51–4.00	9.36***	9.10***	9.14***	9.26***	9.29***
	(3.00)	(3.02)	(2.93)	(3.00)	(2.99)
High School Composite Math/Reading Score	1.03***	1.03***	1.03***	1.03***	1.03***
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Number of High School Cocurricular Activities	1.03	1.04	1.04	1.04	1.03
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
Constant	.04***	.03***	.04***	.04***	.04***
	(.01)	(.01)	(.02)	(.01)	(.01)
Observations	5,982	5,982	5,982	5,982	5,982
McFadden’s R^2	.205	.210	.205	.204	.203
Wald Chi-Square Value (20 df)	693.71	716.28	687.10	692.63	698.02

Note. Standard errors in parentheses.

*** p < .001. ** p < .01. * p < .05.

Table 4. Logistic regression models for bachelor’s degree attainment, testing interaction terms (odds ratios reported).

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
VARIABLES	Number of HIPs	Community	Internship	Mentoring	Research	Study Abroad
Delayed College Entry by 6 Months or More	0.32***	0.35***	0.37***	0.36***	0.36***	0.36***
	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.09)	(0.07)	(0.07)	(0.07)
Number of High-Impact Postsecondary Activities	1.41***	1.54***	1.18**	1.53***	1.46***	1.42***
	(0.05)	(0.08)	(0.06)	(0.07)	(0.06)	(0.06)
Delay × Number of High-Impact Postsecondary Activities	1.21
	(0.18)
Community-Based Project		0.67**
		(0.09)
Delay × Community		1.77
		(0.73)
Internship			1.84***
			(0.21)
Delay × Internship			1.07
			(0.37)
Mentoring				0.71*
				(0.10)
Delay × Mentor				1.48
				(0.61)
Research With Faculty					0.83
					(0.12)
Delay × Research					1.63
					(0.83)
Study Abroad						0.98
						(0.15)
Delay × Study Abroad						2.47
						(2.25)
Socioeconomic Status (Reference Category: Lowest Quartile)
Second Quartile	1.10	1.09	1.11	1.09	1.10	1.10
	(0.15)	(0.15)	(0.16)	(0.15)	(0.16)	(0.15)
Third Quartile	1.28	1.27	1.26	1.28	1.28	1.28
	(0.17)	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.17)	(0.16)
Highest Quartile	1.81***	1.78***	1.81***	1.79***	1.81***	1.81***
	(0.23)	(0.23)	(0.23)	(0.23)	(0.23)	(0.23)
Female	1.04	1.05	1.03	1.04	1.03	1.04
	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)
Race (Reference Category: White)
Asian	0.92	0.92	0.94	0.92	0.94	0.93
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)
Black	0.89	0.88	0.91	0.90	0.90	0.89
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.12)	(0.11)	(0.12)	(0.11)
Hispanic	0.87	0.85	0.88	0.87	0.87	0.87
	(0.13)	(0.12)	(0.13)	(0.13)	(0.13)	(0.13)
Other	0.93	0.94	0.98	0.94	0.95	0.94
	(0.15)	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.15)	(0.16)	(0.16)
Married or Formerly Married (2006)	0.33**	0.34**	0.34**	0.33**	0.33**	0.33**
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)
Whether Has Biological Children (2006)	0.42**	0.41**	0.42**	0.43**	0.42**	0.42**
	(0.13)	(0.12)	(0.13)	(0.13)	(0.13)	(0.13)
Hours Worked Weekly 2005 to 2006 (Reference Category: 0 hrs)
1–20 hrs	1.23*	1.23*	1.22*	1.22*	1.23*	1.23*
	(0.12)	(0.12)	(0.12)	(0.12)	(0.12)	(0.12)
21+ hrs	0.63***	0.64***	0.63***	0.63***	0.64***	0.64***
	(0.06)	(0.07)	(0.06)	(0.06)	(0.07)	(0.06)
High School Grade Point Average (Reference Category: 0.00–2.00)
2.01–3.00	2.44**	2.47**	2.37**	2.41**	2.43**	2.44**
	(0.75)	(0.76)	(0.75)	(0.74)	(0.75)	(0.75)
3.01–3.50	4.68***	4.77***	4.51***	4.58***	4.64***	4.68***
	(1.48)	(1.50)	(1.46)	(1.44)	(1.48)	(1.48)
3.51–4.00	9.35***	9.44***	9.10***	9.18***	9.28***	9.35***
	(3.01)	(3.03)	(3.02)	(2.94)	(3.02)	(3.01)
High School Composite Math/Reading Score	1.03***	1.03***	1.03***	1.03***	1.03***	1.03***
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Number of High School Cocurricular Activities	1.03	1.04	1.04	1.04	1.04	1.03
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
Constant	.04***	.04***	.03***	.04***	.04***	.04***
	(.01)	(.02)	(.01)	(.02)	(.01)	(.01)
Observations	5,982	5,982	5,982	5,982	5,982	5,982
McFadden’s R^2	.203	.205	.210	.205	.204	.203
Wald Chi-Square Value (M1 – 20 df | M2–6 – 21 df)	690.30	692.21	717.62	686.26	691.73	698.82

Note. Standard errors in parentheses. HIPs = High-Impact Practices.

*** p < .001. ** p < .01. * p < .05.

Table

Variables	Mean	SD	Min	Max	N
Respondent delayed entry into college by 6 months or more	0.06	0.23	0	1	5,982
Number of high-impact educational activities in which respondent participated while in college	1.30	1.24	0	5	5,982
Respondent attained bachelor’s degree by 2012	0.61	0.49	0	1	5,982
Respondent participated in community-based project	0.23	0.42	0	1	5,982
Respondent participated in internship/co-op/field experience/student teaching/clinical assignment	0.54	0.50	0	1	5,982
Respondent participated in mentoring	0.20	0.40	0	1	5,982
Respondent participated in research project with faculty member outside course	0.17	0.38	0	1	5,982
Respondent participated in study-abroad program	0.15	0.36	0	1	5,982
Respondent’s socioeconomic status	—	—	0	3	5,982
First quartile	0.11	—	—	—	658
Second quartile	0.16	—	—	—	957
Third quartile	0.26	—	—	—	1,555
Fourth quartile	0.46	—	—	—	2,812
Respondent is female	0.55	0.50	0	1	5,982
Race	—	—	0	4	5,982
White	0.66	—	—	—	3,948
Black	0.11	—	—	—	658
Asian	0.10	—	—	—	598
Hispanic	0.08	—	—	—	479
Other	0.05	—	—	—	299
Respondent ever married in 2006	0.02	0.13	0	1	5,982
Respondent has biological child in 2006	0.02	0.14	0	1	5,982
Respondent’s work hours in 2005 to 2006	—	—	0	2	5,982
Not employed	0.38	—	—	—	2,273
1–20 hr	0.39	—	—	—	2,333
More than 20 hr	0.23	—	—	—	1,376
High school grade point average	—	—	0	3	5,982
0.00–2.00	0.03	—	—	—	179
2.01–3.00	0.29	—	—	—	1,735
3.01–3.50	0.33	—	—	—	1,974
3.51–4.00	0.35	—	—	—	2,094
Standardized test composite score: math and reading	56.53	8.16	25.35	81.04	5,982
Number of high school cocurricular activities in which respondent participated	2.84	1.83	0	11	5,982