Condom Use Beliefs Differ According to Regulatory Focus: A Mixed-Methods Study in Portugal and Spain

Figures & data

Table 1. Demographic characteristics.

		Country
	Overall (N = 742)	Portugal (n = 328)	Spain (n = 414)
	M (SD) or n (%)	M (SD) or n (%)	M (SD) or n (%)	Group comparisons
Age (min = 18, max = 62)	31.42 (9.16)	30.68 (8.52)	32.00 (9.58)	t(740) = 1.96, d = 0.15
Ethnic background				χ^2(6) = 19.35**, V = 0.16
Arab	6 (0.8)	1 (0.3)	5 (1.2)
Asian	2 (0.3)	1 (0.3)	1 (0.2)
Black	28 (3.8)	22^a (6.7)	6^b (1.4)
Latinx	118 (15.9)	59 (18.0)	59 (14.3)
Mixed race	6 (0.8)	2 (0.6)	4 (1.0)
White	579 (78.0)	241^b (73.5)	338^a (81.6)
Prefer not to answer	3 (0.4)	2 (0.6)	1 (0.2)
Gender				χ^2(3) = 1.32, V = 0.04
Man	316 (42.6)	138 (42.1)	178 (43.0)
Non-binary	7 (0.9)	4 (1.2)	3 (0.7)
Woman	418 (56.3)	186 (56.7)	232 (56.0)
Prefer not to answer	1 (0.1)	0 (0.0)	1 (0.2)
Sexual orientation				χ^2(5) = 16.40**, V = 0.15
Asexual	3 (0.4)	0 (0.0)	3 (0.7)
Bisexual	114 (15.4)	33^b (10.1)	81^a (19.6)
Heterosexual	578 (77.9)	271^a (82.6)	307^b (74.2)
Lesbian/Gay	39 (5.3)	19 (5.8)	20 (4.8)
Pansexual	6 (0.8)	4 (1.2)	2 (0.5)
Queer	2 (0.3)	1 (0.3)	1 (0.2)
Residence				χ^2(4) = 3.36, V = 0.07
Metropolitan area	461 (62.1)	196 (59.8)	265 (64.0)
Rural area	90 (12.1)	43 (13.1)	47 (11.4)
Small town	4 (0.5)	1 (0.3)	3 (0.7)
Suburban area	186 (25.1)	87 (26.5)	99 (23.9)
Prefer not to answer	1 (0.1)	1 (0.3)	0 (0.0)
Completed education				χ^2(5) = 38.10***, V = 0.23
Primary or secondary school	14 (1.9)	7 (2.1)	7 (1.7)
High school	221 (29.8)	134^a (40.9)	87^b (21.0)
Professional training	7 (0.9)	2 (0.6)	5 (1.2)
University degree	330 (44.5)	130^b (39.6)	200^a (48.3)
Post-graduate (Master’s; Ph.D.)	168 (22.6)	54^b (16.5)	114^a (27.5)
Prefer not to answer	2 (0.3)	1 (0.3)	1 (0.2)
Occupation				χ^2(5) = 24.50***, V = 0.18
Retired	5 (0.7)	2 (0.6)	3 (0.7)
Stay-at-home parent	7 (0.9)	6^a (1.8)	1^b (0.2)
Student (part or full time)	213 (28.7)	72^b (22.0)	141^a (34.1)
Unemployed	82 (11.1)	45^a (13.7)	37^b (8.9)
Working (part or full time)	429 (57.8)	203^b (61.9)	226^a (54.6)
Prefer not to answer	6 (0.8)	0 (0.0)	6 (1.4)
Socioeconomic status				χ^2(5) = 17.36**, V = 0.15
Finding it very difficult on current income	52 (7.0)	32^a (9.8)	20^b (4.8)
Finding it difficult on present income	162 (21.8)	81 (24.7)	81 (19.6)
Coping on present income	337 (45.4)	149 (45.4)	188 (45.4)
Living comfortably on present income	154 (20.8)	56^b (17.1)	98^a (23.7)
Living very comfortably on present income	26 (3.5)	6^b (1.8)	20^a (4.8)
Prefer not to answer	11 (1.5)	4 (1.2)	7 (1.7)

Note. Different superscripts between groups indicate significant differences in column proportions with Bonferroni correction at p < .050.

***p ≤ .001, **p ≤ .010, *p ≤ .050.

Table 2. Drivers of condomless sex with casual partners: Frequencies of themes, subthemes, examples, and differences according to regulatory focus in sexuality.

			Groups
Theme	Subtheme	Examples for each group	Pleasure promotion	Disease prevention	Group comparisons χ^2 (V)
1. Lack of behavioral control (n = 997; 33.50%)			556(34.66%)	441 (32.14%)	2.11 (0.03)
	1.1. Heat of the moment and unexpected encounters (n = 657; 22.08%)	Promotion: “When you’re really horny” Prevention: “When you didn’t expect to have sex”	379 (23.63%)	278 (20.26%)	4.87* (0.04)
	1.2. Alcohol and/or drug use (n = 340; 11.42%)	Promotion: “Drugs and alcohol” Prevention: “When you’re drunk”	177 (11.03%)	163 (11.88%)	0.52 (0.01)
2. Lack of infection risk (n = 643; 21.61%)			356 (22.19%)	287 (20.92%)	0.71 (0.02)
	2.1. Perceived safety from knowing the partner (n = 446; 14.99%)	Promotion: “Partners you have known for a long time” Prevention: “When people know the sex life of their partners”	240 (14.96%)	206 (15.01%)	0.00 (0.00)
	2.2. Trusting the partner (n = 147; 4.94%)	Promotion: “When you trust your partner” Prevention: “After getting blood test results for STIs”	80 (4.99%)	67 (4.88%)	0.02 (0.00)
	2.3. Having STI testing results (n = 50; 1.68%)	Promotion: “If they both tested negatively in an STI test” Prevention: “If partners were tested recently”	36 (2.24%)	14 (1.02%)	6.71** (0.05)
3. Lack of sexual education (n = 420; 14.11%)			174 (10.85%)	246 (17.93%)	30.60*** (0.10)
	3.1. Not prioritizing health protection (n = 267; 8.97%)	Promotion: “When the attraction is stronger than danger” Prevention: “When people are irresponsible”	107 (6.67%)	160 (11.66%)	22.56*** (0.09)
	3.2. Not knowing the health consequences (n = 153; 5.14%)	Promotion: “When partners say they’ll use the pull-out method” Prevention: “Believing you don’t need a condom for oral sex”	67 (4.18%)	86 (6.27%)	6.63** (0.05)
4. Physical sensations (n = 296; 9.95%)			187 (11.66%)	109 (7.94%)	11.39*** (0.06)
	4.1. Type of sex (n = 137; 4.60%)	Promotion: “In anal sex” Prevention: “When you have oral sex”	81 (5.05%)	56 (4.08%)	1.58 (0.02)
	4.2. Sexual pleasure and excitement (n = 107; 3.60%)	Promotion: “Because you feel skin on skin, and it is more exciting” Prevention: “To have new experiences”	73 (4.55%)	34 (2.48%)	9.17** (0.06)
	4.3. Barrier to sexual sensation (n = 52; 1.75%)	Promotion: “When the partner loses the erection” Prevention: “Uncomfortable using condoms”	33 (2.06%)	19 (1.38%)	1.95 (0.03)
5. Relationship dynamics (n = 208; 6.99%)			124 (7.73%)	84 (6.12%)	2.94 (0.03)
	5.1. Partner barriers (n = 125; 4.20%)	Promotion: “When the man insists on not using condoms” Prevention: “When the partner says you don’t need it”	69 (4.30%)	56 (4.08%)	0.09 (0.01)
	5.2. Intimacy pursuit (n = 83; 2.79%)	Promotion: “When there’s more intimacy” Prevention: “Potentially serious relationship”	55 (3.43%)	28 (2.04%)	5.26* (0.04)
6. Absence of preparatory behaviors (n = 207; 6.96%)			102 (6.36%)	105 (7.65%)	1.91 (0.03)
	6.1. Not having condoms at the moment (n = 147; 4.94%)	Promotion: “When you forget to buy protection” Prevention: “When there are no more condoms at home”	74 (4.61%)	73 (5.32%)	0.79 (0.02)
	6.2. Unable to get condoms (n = 60; 2.02%)	Promotion: “You don’t have enough money to buy condoms” Prevention: “When there’s no free condom distribution”	28 (1.75%)	32 (2.33%)	1.29 (0.02)
7. Pregnancy motives (n = 205; 6.89%)			105 (6.55%)	100 (7.29%)	0.64 (0.02)
	7.1. Lack of risk for unplanned pregnancies (n = 150; 5.04%)	Promotion: “If you’re on the birth control pill” Prevention: “When people use other contraceptive methods”	76 (4.74%)	74 (5.39%)	0.66 (0.02)
	7.2. Pregnancy intentions (n = 55; 1.85%)	Promotion: “If people want to get pregnant” Prevention: “If people don’t fear getting pregnant”	29 (1.81%)	26 (1.90%)	0.03 (0.00)

Note. Reported are the frequencies and percentages of the valid responses.

*p ≤ .050. **p ≤ .010. ***p ≤ .001.

Table 3. Drivers of condom use with casual partners: Frequencies of themes, subthemes, examples, and differences according to regulatory focus in sexuality.

			Groups
Theme	Subtheme	Examples for each group	Pleasure promotion	Disease prevention	Group comparisons x^2 (V)
1. Risk awareness (n = 927; 32.41%)			543 (36.74%)	384 (27.79%)	26.13*** (0.10)
	1.1. High-risk situations and one-night stands (n = 498; 17.41%)	Promotion: “When having a threesome” Prevention: “Knowing that the partner has multiple sex partners”	315 (21.31%)	183 (13.24%)	32.35*** (0.11)
	1.2. First dates and lack of trust (n = 290; 10.14%)	Promotion: “When you’re insecure about the other person” Prevention: “Not trusting the sex partner”	148 (10.01%)	142 (10.27%)	0.05 (0.00)
	1.2. Current infections (n = 139; 4.86%)	Promotion: “A person with HIV or any other STI” Prevention: “When you know your partner has an STI”	80 (5.41%)	59 (4.27%)	2.02 (0.03)
2. Safety concerns (n = 790; 27.62%)			351 (23.75%)	439 (31.77%)	22.96*** (0.09)
	2.1. Responsibility and precaution (n = 526; 18.39%)	Promotion: “Adult and responsible partners” Prevention: “When people are conscious”	224 (15.16%)	302 (21.85%)	21.34*** (0.09)
	2.2. Health safety (n = 153; 5.35%)	Promotion: “When people don’t want to catch diseases” Prevention: “Protection against STIs”	84 (5.68%)	69 (4.99%)	0.67 (0.02)
	2.3. Sexual education (n = 111; 3.88%)	Promotion: “Know the diseases caused by lack of protection” Prevention: “When people received adequate sexual education”	43 (2.91%)	68 (4.92%)	7.74** (0.05)
3. Behavioral control (n = 403; 14.09%)			182 (12.31%)	221 (15.99%)	7.98** (0.05)
	3.1. Planned or controlled sexual activity (n = 356; 12.45%)	Promotion: “When it’s planned” Prevention: “When you have the time”	157 (10.62%)	199 (14.40%)	9.35** (0.06)
	3.2. Self-control (n = 47; 1.64%)	Promotion: “When you’re not drunk” Prevention: “When people are sober”	25 (1.69%)	22 (1.59%)	0.04 (0.00)
4. Pregnancy concerns (n = 284; 9.93%)		Promotion: “When people want to avoid an unwanted pregnancy” Prevention: “Fear of becoming pregnant”	149 (10.08%)	135 (9.77%)	0.08 (0.01)
5. Sexual activities (n = 177; 6.19%)			108 (7.31%)	69 (4.99%)	6.59** (0.05)
	5.1. Type of sex (n = 91; 3.18%)	Promotion: “To have anal sex” Prevention: “When you have intercourse”	53 (3.59%)	38 (2.75%)	1.62 (0.02)
	5.2. Sexual pleasure and new experiences (n = 86; 3.01%)	Promotion: “People want to try different flavored condoms” Prevention: “To increase lubrification and decrease pain”	55 (3.72%)	31 (2.24%)	5.35* (0.04)
6. Preparatory behaviors (n = 107; 3.74%)			44 (2.98%)	63 (4.56%)	4.96* (0.04)
	6.1. Condom availability (n = 71; 2.48%)	Promotion: “When people have condoms at hand” Prevention: “Always carry a condom with them”	31 (2.10%)	40 (2.89%)	1.87 (0.03)
	6.2. Access to condoms (n = 36; 1.26%)	Promotion: “When a friend gives you one” Prevention: “When people have the money to buy condoms”	13 (0.88%)	23 (1.66%)	3.54 (0.04)
7. Communication (n = 100; 3.50%)			50 (3.38%)	50 (3.62%)	0.12 (0.01)
	7.1. Direct communication and request (n = 69; 2.41%)	Promotion: “When the partner demands it” Prevention: “When there’s communication about condom use”	31 (2.10%)	38 (2.75%)	1.29 (0.02)
	7.2. Mutual agreement (n = 31; 1.08%)	Promotion: “When both partners want to use condoms” Prevention: “When you have a prior agreement”	19 (1.29%)	12 (0.87%)	1.16 (0.02)
8. Hygiene and health (n = 72; 2.52%)		Promotion: “Easier to clean after having sex” Prevention: “There’s a risk of bacteria when you have anal sex”	51 (3.45%)	21 (1.52%)	10.82*** (0.06)

Note. Reported are the frequencies and percentages of the valid responses.

*p ≤ .050. **p ≤ .010. ***p ≤ .001.

Figure 1. Drivers of condomless sex with casual partners according to regulatory focus in sexuality.

*p ≤ .050. **p ≤ .010. ***p ≤ .001.

Figure 2. Drivers of condom use with casual partners according to regulatory focus in sexuality.

*p ≤ .050. **p ≤ .010. ***p ≤ .001.

Figure 3. Functions and attributes of condoms according to regulatory focus in sexuality.

*p ≤ .050. **p ≤ .010. ***p ≤ .001.

Table 4. Descriptive statistics and correlations.

		Correlations
	M (SD)	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Promotion focus scores	4.95 (1.17)	-
2. Prevention focus scores	4.94 (1.57)	−.24***	-
3. CUES: Positive outcomes	4.97 (1.38)	.10**	.09*	-
4. CUES: Negative outcomes	2.67 (1.39)	.10**	−.24***	−.69***	-
5. CUES: Safer sex outcomes	6.21 (1.01)	.17***	−.10**	.19***	−.14***	-
6. CBS: Sensation barriers	3.21 (1.60)	.11**	−.29***	−.58***	.74***	−.13***	-
7. CBS: Partner barriers	1.58 (1.04)	.02	−.30***	−.26***	.45***	−.33***	.45***

Note. Prevention and promotion focus indicate scores on the Regulatory Focus in Sexuality scale. CUES indicate scores on the Condom Use Expectancy Scale. CBS indicate scores on the Condom Barriers Scale.

***p ≤ .001, **p ≤ .010, *p ≤ .050.

Figure 4. Differences in condom use expectancies according to regulatory focus in sexuality.

Note: Bars represent standard errors.

Figure 5. Differences in condom use barriers according to regulatory focus in sexuality.

Note: Bars represent standard errors.