Disentangling the compact city drivers and pressures: Barcelona as a case study

Figures & data

Table 1. Links between drivers and pressures relating to Barcelona as a compact city, formulated as dynamic quantitative proxy indicators capturing evolution over time, with the rationale for a respective pressure provided in terms of effects on compact city development

Drivers	Pressures (captured as the evolution of quantitative proxy indicators displayed below)	Rationale in relation to compact city qualities
Social culture	Diversification of ethnic groups (entropy index)	Ethnic/social diversity is an expected compact city (CC)* quality (Jenks et al. 1996; Saaty 2013).
	Gentrification (income index with Barcelona base value = 100)	Gentrification influences social equity, which is an expected CC quality (Burton 2000).
	Municipal assistance in activities organized by local-level civic centres (no. of occurrences)	Affects social participation and involvement; CC is expected to lead to social activity and interaction (Rani 2015).
	Citizen complaints per district of residence to the Oficina de Información al Consumidor (municipal office for consumer demands) (% of total complaints in Barcelona)	Citizen complaints constitute one driving force for increased social justice, which is an expected CC quality (Oelofse 2003).
	Price diversification (standard deviation for second-hand housing price within districts)	Price diversity favours social equity, which is a claimed CC quality (Burton 2000).
Urban planning and policy	Increase/decrease in pedestrian priority areas (ha)	Has an effect on pedestrian-friendly urban spaces, which is an expected CC quality (OECD 2012)
	Increase/decrease of green area/inhabitant (m^2/capita)	The size of green spaces is a critical CC quality linked to environmental sustainability (Tillie et al. 2012).
Market economy	Increase/decrease in economic activity (m^2 of floor area)	Changes in non-residential use influence economic vitality, which is a CC characteristic (Metzger et al. 2015).
Historical settlement processes	Preservation of the historical character of an area, measured as changes in number of dwellings constructed before 1960 (% of all dwellings)	Historical neighbourhoods are often more compact. European historic centres are associated with a compact city form (Busquets 2005). Historical areas tend to be denser and more diverse (Lim & Kain, 2016).
Immigration	Increase/decrease of the share of non-Spanish population (% of all inhabitants)	Affects cosmopolitanism and social diversity, which are expected CC qualities (Saaty 2013)
	Immigration rate (immigration-related additions to the census per 1000 inhabitants)	The balance of newly arrived immigrants in relation to existing inhabitants influences cultural and social diversity (Saaty 2013).
	Diversification in ethnic groups (entropy index)	Affects social diversity, which is an expected CC quality (Jenks et al. 1996)
	Increase/decrease in the rental price for retail space (EUR/m^2 per month)	Has an influence on retail rents, whereby relatively low rents favour businesses run by immigrants (according to the interviewees) and thus contributes to social diversity, which is a CC quality (Saaty 2013).
Culture and heritage	Increase/decrease in the number of restored facades	Affects maintenance of cultural heritage, which is considered a CC value (UNESCO 2016)
Ageing population	Changes in age distribution, measured as an ageing index (population aged > 65 years/population aged 0–15 years) ×100	An ageing population requires walking distances to facilities, which is a CC quality (OECD 2012).
Education	Education as an integrative process, measured as the increase/decrease in the share of non-Spanish children in pre-school (% of all pre-school children)	Affects social integration, which is a desired CC quality (Oelofse 2003)
Environmental considerations/risks	Changes in domestic water consumption (litres per capita)	Reduction in resources consumption is expected in a CC (Jenks et al. 1996)
Economic crisis	Increase/decrease in the rental price for retail space (EUR/m^2 per month)	Decrease in rental price may lead to the following CC qualities: social equity (Burton 2000) and diversification of activities (Jenks et al. 1996).
	Increase/decrease in second-hand housing price (EUR/m^2)	Decrease in housing prices may lead to social diversity and social equity – both of which are CC qualities (Burton 2000; Saaty 2013) – through increased affordability.
	Increase/decrease in family income (income index – Barcelona base value = 100)	Increased family incomes may lead to social diversity and social equity – both of which are CC qualities (Burton 2000; Saaty 2013) – through increased affordability.
	Changes in families’ disposable income, measured as economic effort for housing (newly built dwelling price/family income)	Less economic effort may lead to social diversity and social equity – both of which are CC qualities (Burton 2000; Saaty 2013) – through increased affordability.
Tourism	Changes in the volume of tourists (no. of hotel beds)	The presence of tourists is linked to the generation of incomes and improved street cleaning/public spaces, according to the interviewees. The OECD (2015) argues that tourism may be associated with an attractive mixed-use compact development.

Note: *CC – compact city

Fig. 1. Research structure

Fig. 2. The three case study districts in Barcelona and other locations (based on GIS layers from Barcelona Municipality (Ajuntament de Barcelona n.d.b) and the Spanish National Centre of Geographic Information (Centro Nacional de Información Geográfica n.d.)

Table 2. Profiles of interviewees

Main category	Subcategory
Social sector	Residents and neighbourhood associations
	Civil and social movements
	Residents
	NGOs
Institutional sector	Planning officers (technicians)
	Architects and planners working in public administration
	Managers of public administration sectoral departments
	Managers of public agencies or foundations
Planning professional sector	Planning consultants
	Architects (private practice)
Economic sector	Representative of association of entrepreneurs
	Local business and shop managers
Research and academic sector	Researchers and experts on case studies

Table 3. Proxy indicators as quartiles at the starting year for the three districts, including evaluation of the situation at the starting year (Q1 = low, Q2 = medium low, Q3 = medium high, Q4 = high. Evaluation: positive ++, rather positive +, rather negative -, and negative --)

Drivers	Pressures (quantitative proxy indicators)	Initial year	Quartiles (Q)
			Ciutat Vella	Les Corts	Sant Martí
Social culture	Entropy index	2004	Q4 ++	Q1 --	Q2 -
	Income index (as a gentrification measure) – Barcelona = 100	2010	Q1 --	Q4 --	Q3 ++
	Assistance in activities organized by local-level civic centres	2014	Q4 ++	Q3 +	Q4 ++
	% of citizen complaints per district of residence	2011	Q2 +	Q2 +	Q4 --
	Standard deviation in second-hand housing price within districts (price diversity)	2011	Q2 -	Q4 ++	Q3 +
Urban planning and policy	Pedestrian priority areas (ha)	2010	Q4 ++	Q1 --	Q3 +
	Green areas/inhabitant (m^2)	2010	Q2 -	Q4 ++	Q4 ++
Market economy	Economic activity (m^2)	2010	Q3 +	Q2 -	Q4 ++
Historical settlement processes	Dwellings built before 1960/total number of dwellings (%)	2010	Q4 ++	Q1 --	Q2 -
Immigration	Non-Spanish population (%)	2010	Q4 --	Q1 --	Q3 ++
	Immigration rate (immigrants per 1000 inhabitants)	2010	Q4 --	Q3 ++	Q2 +
	Entropy index (min = 0; max = 1)	2004	Q4 ++	Q1 --	Q2 -
	Retail rental price (EUR/m^2 per month)	2007	Q4 --	Q3 ++	Q2 +
Culture and heritage	Number of restored facades (Barcelona posa't guapa)	2010	Q1 --	Q1 --	Q3 +
Ageing population	Ageing index (population aged = > 65 years/population aged 0–15 years) × 100	2010	Q1 --	Q4 --	Q1 --
Education	Non-Spanish children in pre-school (%)	2010	Q4 --	Q1 --	Q3 ++
Environmental considerations/risks	Water domestic consumption (litres per capita)	2007	Q1 ++	Q4 --	Q2 +
Economic crisis	Retail rental price (EUR/m^2 per month)	2007	Q4 --	Q3 ++	Q2 +
	Second-hand housing price (EUR/m^2)	2010	Q2 -	Q4 --	Q3 ++
	Income index – Barcelona = 100	2010	Q1 --	Q4 --	Q3 ++
	Economic effort (dwelling price/family income)	2010	Q4 --	Q4 --	Q3 -
Tourism	Number of hotel beds	2010	Q4 --	Q3 -	Q4 --

Table 4. Evolution of proxy indicators expressed through quantitative proxy indicators for the three case districts in Barcelona

Drivers	Pressures (quantitative indicators)	Time period (unit, calculation method)	Evolution
			Ciutat Vella	Les Corts	Sant Martí
Social culture	Entropy index	2004-2014 (Diff.)	0.04	0.04	0.07
	Income index	2010-2013 (% Var.)	2.66	−0.28	−1.1
	Assistance in activities organised by local-level civic centres	2014-2015 (% Var.)	−22.3	2.8	50.5
	Citizen complaints per district of residence (%)	2011-2015 (Diff.)	−0.5	−0.8	−0.2
	Standard deviation in second-hand housing price within districts	2011-2015 (% Var.)	58.42	13.62	83.87
Urban planning and policy	Pedestrian priority areas (ha)	2010-2014 (% Var.)	18.45	13.64	27.36
	Green areas/inhabitant (m^2)	2010-2014 (% Var.)	3.33	6.59	2.74
Market economy	Economic activity (m^2)	2010-2014 (% Var.)	5.28	1.67	5.54
Historical settlement processes	Dwellings built before 1960/total number of dwellings (%)	2011-2015 (Diff.)	−1.5	−1.1	−1.8
Immigration	Foreigners (%)	2010-2014 (Diff.)	1.9	−0.3	−0.2
	Immigration rate	2010-2014 (Diff.)	−14.9	−4.9	−6.5
	Entropy index	2004-2014 (Diff.)	0.04	0.04	0.07
	Retail rental price	2007-2011 (% Var.)	−16	−12	−22.6
Culture and heritage	Number of restored facades	Sum 2010-2014	210	42	144
Ageing population	Ageing index	2010-2014 (Diff.)	−10.56	12.48	0.81
Education	Foreigners in pre-school (%)	2010-2014 (Diff.)	9.1	1.2	4.3
Environmental considerations/risks	Water domestic consumption	2007-2012 (% Var.)	1.8	−8.2	−6.5
Economic crisis	Retail rental price (EUR/m^2 per month)	2007-2011 (% Var.)	−16	−12	−22.6
	Second-hand housing price (EUR/m^2)	2010-2014 (% Var.)	−2.19	−15.04	−11.45
	Income index	2010-2013 (% Var.)	2.66	−0.28	−1.1
	Economic effort	2010-2013 (% Var.)	−7.25	−66.04	−9.6
Tourism	Number of hotel beds	2010-2014 (% Var.)	9.85	1.94	18.87

Table 5. Comprehensive iconographic matrix of urban indicators

Fig. 3. Initial situation of the three districts; percentages of positive, rather positive, negative, and rather negative starting points in relation to compact city development

Fig. 4. Immigration rate per 1000 inhabitants; difference in a period of 5 years and in a period of 10 years (based on data accessed from Ajuntament de Barcelona n.d.c)

Table 6. Second-hand housing purchase prices in the third trimester of 2016, with variation referred to maximum price (Source: Idealista 2016, 29)

District	Year of achieved maximum price	% variation in relation to maximum price	Annual variation for third trimester 2015–2016
Ciutat Vella	2007	−12.8%	9%
Les Corts	2006	−17.3%	7.4%
Sant Martí	2006	−21%	−0.5%
Barcelona as a whole	2007	−22.5%	7.8%

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