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Notes
1 I would like to thank Klaus‐Peter Horn, Daniel Lindmark, and Christoph Lüth for their critical comments and Janine Micunek Fuchs for editing this introduction. The issue editors also appreciate Sandra Rademacher’s engagement in copy‐editing the other essays. Finally, the three editors would like to thank Frank Simon, who made this issue of Paedagogica Historica possible. The essays compiled in this issue are revised versions of papers presented in the sessions on ‘Informal and Formal Cross‐Cultural Networks in History of Modern Education’ organized by the Standing Working Group on Cross‐Cultural Relations in Education at the International Standing Conference for the History of Education in Geneva in 2004.
2 See Barabási, Albert‐László. Linked: How Everything is Connected to Everything Else and What it Means for Business, Science, and Everyday Life. Cambridge, MA: Perseus, 2003.
3 See for the neo‐institutionalist approach the studies by John Meyer, Francisco Ramirez, and John Boli. A short overview has been recently given by Caruso, Marcelo, and Eugenia Roldán Vera. “Pluralizing Meanings: The Monitorial System of Education in Latin America in the Early Nineteenth Century.” Paedagogica Historica 41 (2005): 645–54, here: 646ff.
4 Fuchs, Eckhardt. “Bildungsgeschichte als internationale und Globalgeschichte: Einführende Bemerkungen.” In Bildung International: Historische Perspektiven und aktuelle Entwicklungen, edited by Eckardt Fuchs. Würzburg: Ergon, 2006: 7–25; Id. “Internationalisierung als Gegenstand der Historischen Bildungsforschung: Zu Institutionalisierungsprozessen der edukativen Kultur um 1900.” In Erfolg oder Misserfolg? Urteile und Bilanzen in der Historiographie der Erziehung, edited by Max Liedtke, Eva Matthes, and Gisela Miller‐Kipp. Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt, 2004: 231–49; Schriewer, Jürgen, and Marcelo Caruso. “Globale Diffusionsdynamik und kontextspezifische Aneignung: Konzepte und Ansätze historischer Internationalisierungsforschung.” Comparativ 15 (2005): 7–30; Caruso, Marcelo, and Heinz‐Elmar Tenorth. “’Internationalisierung’ vs. ‘Globalisierung’”: Ein Versuch der Historisierung. Zur Einführung in den Band.” In Internationalisierung. Semantik und Bildungssystem in vergleichender Perspektive, edited by id. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 2002: 13–32.
5 Whereas there is a vast amount of literature concerning this general phenomenon on internationalism, there is still a lack of case studies on specific aspects. For education see Fuchs, Eckhardt. Die internationale Organisation der edukativen Bewegung. Studien zu Austausch‐ und Transferprozessen im Aufbruch der Moderne. Stuttgart: Steiner, 2008 (forthcoming).
6 Wasserman, Stanley, and Katherine Faust. Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [1994] 1997: 3.
7 See Schulz, Matthis. “Netzwerke und Normen in der internationalen Geschichte: Überlegungen zur Einführung.” Historische Mitteilungen der Ranke‐Gesellschaft (2005): esp. part II.
8 Granovetter, Mark. “Strength of Weak Ties.” American Journal of Sociology 78 (1973): 1360–80; id. “The Strength of Weak Ties: A Network Theory Revisited.” Sociological Theory 1 (1983): 201–33.
9 Jansen, Dorotha. Einführung in die Netzwerkanalyse. Grundlagen, Methoden, Forschungsbeispiele. Opladen: Leske und Budrich, 2003: 28ff.
10 As an example how to contextualize space and network see Loimeier, Roman, ed. Die islamische Welt als Netzwerk. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des Netzwerkansatzes im islamischen Kontext. Würzburg: Ergon, 2000.
11 See Osterhammel, Jürgen, and Niels P. Petersson. Geschichte der Globalisierung: Dimensionen, Prozesse, Epochen. München: Beck, 2003: 22ff.
12 A very good introduction to the new science of networks is provided by Watts, Duncan J. Six Degrees: The Science of a Connected Age. New York–London: Norton, 2003.
13 Wolff, Birgitta, and Rahild Neuburger. “Zur theoretischen Begründung von Netzwerken aus .der Sicht der Neuen Institutionenökonomik.” In Netzwerke und Politproduktion. Konzepte, Methoden, Perspektiven, edited by Dorothea Jansen and Klaus Schubert. Marburg: Schüren, 1995: 74–94, here: 84ff.
14 Hessinger, Philipp. Vernetzte Wirtschaft und ökonomische Entwicklung. Organisatorischer Wandel, institutionelle Einbettung, zivilgesellschaftliche Perspektiven. Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2001; Windeler, Arnold. Unternehmungsnetzwerke. Konstitution und Strukturation. Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2001. See also Economides, Nicholas. “The Economics of Networks.” International Journal of Industrial Organization 14 (1996): 673–699. For further information on the economics of networks and bibliographical links see the website http://www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/site.html; .
15 Moreno, Jacob L. Sociometry, Experimental Method and Science of Society. Beacon, NY: Beacon House, 1951; Barnes, John. “Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish.” Human Relations 7 (1954): 39–58.
16 See the overview in Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, 11f.
17 See an overview of the social science network analysis by Bruno Trezzini. “Theoretische Aspekte der sozialwissenschaftlichen Netzwerkanalyse.” Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Soziologie 24 (1998): 511–44; Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, 3, 11–12; Scott, John, ed. Social Networks: Critical Concepts in Sociology. London: Routledge, 2002; Weyer, J., ed. Soziale Netzwerke. Konzepte und Methoden der sozialwissenschaftlichen Netzwerkforschung. München: Oldenbourg, 2000.
18 Jansen, Einführung, 48ff. and ch. 9; Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, 5ff.
19 See an overview on recent research in Sprinz, Detlef F. “Internationale Regime und Institutionen.” In Die neuen Internationalen Beziehungen. Forschungsstand und Perspektiven in Deutschland, edited by Gunther Hellmann, Klaus Dieter Wolf, and Michael Zürn. Baden‐Baden: Nomos, 2003: 251–73. On the use of network analysis in political sciences in general, see Jansen and Schubert, Netzwerke; Pappi, Franz Urban, ed. Methoden der Netzwerkanalyse. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1987; Marin, Bernd, and Renate Mayntz. Policy Networks: Empirical Evidence and Theoretical Consideration. Frankfurt a. M.: Campus, 1991.
20 See Witte, Jan Martin, Wolfgang Reinicke, and Thorsten Benner. “Multisectoral Networks in Global Governance: Towards a Pluralistic System of Accountability.” Government and Opposition 39 (2004): 191–210; Reinicke, Wolfgang, and Francis Deng. Critical Choices—The United Nations, Networks, and the Future of Global Governance. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2000.
21 Rosenau, James N. Study of World Politics. London: Routledge, 2005; id., ed. Governance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
22 Witte et al., Networked Governance.
23 Jansen, Einführung, 12.
24 See Iriye, Akira. Cultural Internationalism and World Order. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997; id. Global Community: The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Contemporary World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
25 Zijderveld, Anton C. The Institutional Imperative: The Interface of Institutions and Networks. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2000: 22, 121.
26 See the recent debate on global history and transnational transfer in the German internet list http://www.geschichte-transnational.clio-online.net; Patel, Kiran K. Nach der Nationalfixiertheit. Perspektiven einer transnationalen Geschichte. Berlin: Humboldt‐Universität, 2004; Paulmann, Johannes. “Internationaler Vergleich und interkultureller Transfer. Zwei Forschungsansätze zur europäischen Geschichte des 18. bis 20. Jahrhunderts.” Historische Zeitschrift 267 (1998): 649–85.
27 For the history of education see Cunningham, Peter. “Innovators, Networks, and Structures: Towards a Prosopography of Progressivism.” History of Education 30 (2001): 433–51, on networks 439ff.; Cobban, A. B. “The Medieval Cambridge Colleges: A Quantitative Study of Higher Degrees to 1500.” History of Education 9 (1980): 1–12.
28 Jansen, Dorothea. “Interorganisationsforschung und Politiknetzwerke.” In Jansen and Schubert, Netzwerke, 95–110, here: 96ff.
29 DiMaggio, Paul J., and Walter W. Powell. “The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields.” American Sociological Review 48 (1983): 147–60. Coercive isomorphism results mostly from legislation, normative isomorphism from professions that set certain standards, and mimetic isomorphism from imitating processes used by competitors or trendsetters.
30 Krücken, Georg. “Imitationslernen und Rivalitätsdruck: Neo‐institutionalistische Perspektiven zur Empirisierung globaler Diffussionsprozesse.” In: Schriewer and Caruso, Nationalerziehung, 94–111, here: 105ff.
31 For a history of networks from a world history perspective, see McNeill, John R., and William H. McNeill. The Human Web: A Bird’s‐Eye View of World History. New York: Norton, 2003. From a theoretical point of view see Schriewer, Jürgen. “World System and Interrelationship Networks.” In Educational Knowledge: Changing Relationships between the State, Civil Society, and the Educational Community, edited by Thomas Popkewitz. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000: 305–43; id. “Multiple Internationalities: The Emergence of a World‐Level ideology and the Persistence of Idiosyncratic World‐Views.” In Transnational Intellectual Networks. Forms of Academic Knowledge and the Search for Cultural Identities, edited by Christophe Charle, Jürgen Schriewer, and Peter Wagner. Frankfurt–New York: Campus, 2004: 473–533.
32 For an overview see Gould, R. V. “Uses of Network Tools in Comparative Historical Research.” In Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences, edited by James Mahoney and D. Ruschemeyer . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003: 241–69; Wetherell, C. “Historical Social Network Analysis.” International Review of Social History 43 (1998): 125–44; Erickson, Bonnie H. “Social Networks and History: A Review Essay.” Historical Methods 30 (1997): 149–59; Watkins, Susan C. “Social Networks and Social Science History.” Social Science History 19 (1995): 295–311. There are too many case studies to be listed here. See, for example, Mettele, Gisela. “Wanderer zwischen den Welten. Die Herrnhuter Brüdergemeinde als internationale Gemeinschaft 1760–1857.” Habilitationsschrift, Chemnitz, 2003; Zaunstöck, Holger. “Gelehrte Gesellschaften im Jahrhundert der Aufklärung. Strukturuntersuchungen zum mitteldeutschen Raum.” In Gelehrte Gesellschaften im mitteldeutschen Raum (1650–1829), part II, edited by Detlef Döring and Kurt Nowak. Stuttgart–Leipzig: Hirzel, 2002.
33 See Fuchs, Eckhardt, and Matthias Schulz, eds. Globalisierung und transnationale Zivilgesellschaft in der Ära des Völkerbundes (= Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 54, no. 10 (2006)). There is some research on the educational politics of international educational organizations from a historical perspective. See Jones, Phillip W. The United Nations and Education: Multilateralism, Development and Globalisation. London/New York: Routledge, 2005; Mundy, Karen. “Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis)Order.” Comparative Education Review 42 (1998): 448–78; id. “The Evolution of Educational Multilateralism from 1945 to 2005.” In Fuchs, Bildung International: 181–99.
34 See for example Chalmel, Loïc. Réseaux philanthropinistes et pédagogie au 18e siècle. Frankfurt a. M.: Lang, 2004.
35 See among others Leimgruber, Yvonne. “Netzwerke als Voraussetzung pädagogischer Wirksamkeit. Rosette Niederer‐Kasthofers Netzwerkstrategien zur Durchsetzung einer verbesserten weiblichen Bildung.” Zeitschrift für pädagogische Historiographie 9 (2003): 84–89, who refers to social science network analysis (p. 84); Dekker, Jeroen J. H. The Will to Change the Child. Re‐education Homes for Children at Risk in Nineteenth Century Western Europe. Frankfurt a. M. et al.: Lang, 2001; Dupont‐Bouchat, Marie‐Sylvie. “Du tourisme pénitentiaire à ‘l’Internationale des philanthropes’. La création d’un réseau pour la protection de l’enfance à travers les congrès internationaux (1840–1914).” Paedagogica Historica 38 (2002): 533–63.
36 See Van Gorp, Angelo, Marc Depaepe, and Frank Simon. “Backing the Actor as Agent in Discipline Formation: An Example of the ‘Secondary Disciplinarization’ of the Educational Sciences, Based on the Networks of Ovide Decroly (1901–1932).” Paedagogica Historica 40 (2004): 591–616, here: 615; Lawn, Martin. “The Institute as Network: The Scottish Council for Research in Education as a Local and International Phenomenon in the 1930s.” Paedagogica Historica 40 (2004): 719–32. In both cases organizations are the agents of networks. See also McGulloch, Gary, and Roy Lowe. “Introduction: Centre and Periphery—Networks, Space and Geography in the History of Education.” History of Education 32 (2003): 457–9—who do not reflect systematically on networks.
37 This curve is a typical feature of the diffusion of innovations. See Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press, 2003.
38 Roldán Vera, Eugenia, and Thomas Schupp. “Bridges over the Atlantic: A Network Analysis of the Introduction of the Monitorial System of Education in Early‐Independent Spanish‐America.” In Schriewer and Caruso, Nationalerziehung, 58–93.
39 Rodgers, Daniel T. Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1998.
40 Zijderveld, Institutional Imperative.
41 See the essay by Horn and Koinzer in this issue.
42 On the visualization of networks see Krempel, Lothar. Visualisierung komplexer Strukturen. Grundlagen der Darstellung mehrdimensionaler Netzwerke. Frankfurt a. M.: Campus, 2005. Earlier attempts can be found by Moreno, Jacob L. Application of the Group Method to Classification. New York: National Committee on Prisons and Prison Labor, 1932; Freeman, Linton C. “Visualizing Social Networks.” Journal of Social Structure 1 (2000); see the website: http://www.cmu.edu/joss/contact/articles/volume1/Freeman.html.