Gender and populist radical-right politics: an introduction

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Notes

¹ Cas Mudde, ‘The populist zeitgeist’, Government and Opposition, vol. 39, no. 4, 2004, 541–63; Kurt Weyland, ‘Clarifying a contested concept: populism in the study of Latin American politics’, Comparative Politics, vol. 34, no. 1, 2001, 1–22.

² See Cas Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2007).

³ Tjitske Akkerman, ‘Comparing radical right parties in government: immigration and integration policies in nine countries (1996–2010)’, West European Politics, vol. 35, no. 3, 2012, 511–29; Sarah L. de Lange, ‘New alliances: why mainstream parties govern with radical right-wing populist parties’, Political Studies, vol. 60, no. 4, 2012, 899–918; Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser (eds), Populism in Europe and the Americas: Threat or Corrective for Democracy? (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 2012); Cas Mudde, ‘Fighting the system? Populist radical right parties and party system change’, Party Politics, vol. 20, no. 2, 2014, 217–26.

⁴ Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe, 90–118.

⁵ Helga Amesberger and Brigitte Halbmayr (eds), Rechtsextreme Parteien—eine mögliche Heimat für Frauen? (Opladen: Leske + Budrich 2002).

⁶ Susi Meret and Birte Siim, ‘Gender, populism and politics of belonging: discourses of right-wing populist parties in Denmark, Norway and Austria’, in Birte Siim and Monika Mokre (eds), Negotiating Gender and Diversity in an Emergent European Public Sphere (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2012), 78–96; Ov Cristian Norocel, ‘Constructing radical right populist resistance: metaphors of heterosexist masculinities and the family question in Sweden’, NORMA: Nordic Journal for Masculinity Studies, vol. 5, no. 2, 2010,169–83; Ov Cristian Norocel, ‘“Give us back Sweden!” A feminist reading of the (re) interpretations of the folkhem conceptual metaphor in Swedish radical right populist discourse’, NORA: Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research, vol. 21, no. 1, 2013, 4–20.

⁷ Tjitske Akkerman and Anniken Hagelund, ‘“Women and children first!” Anti-immigration parties and gender in Norway and the Netherlands’, Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 41, no. 2, 2007, 197–214; Hans-Georg Betz and Susi Meret, ‘Revisiting Lepanto: the political mobilization against Islam in contemporary Western Europe’, Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 43, no. 3–4, 2009, 313–34; José Pedro Zúquete, ‘The European extreme-right and Islam: new directions?’, Journal of Political Ideologies, vol. 13, no. 3, 2008, 321–44.

⁸ See Hans-Georg Betz, Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe (New York: St Martin’s Press 1994); Terri E. Givens, ‘The radical right gender gap’, Comparative Political Studies, vol. 37, no. 1, 2004, 30–54; Tim Immerzeel, Hilde Coffé and Tanja van der Lippe, ‘Explaining the gender gap in radical right voting: a cross-national investigation in 12 Western European countries’, Comparative European Politics, vol. 13, no. 2, 2015, 263–86; Herbert Kitschelt with Anthony J. McGann, The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 1995); Pippa Norris, Radical Right: Voters and Parties in the Electoral Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2005).

⁹ See, for example, Renate Bridenthal, Atina Grossmann and Marion Kaplan (eds), When Biology Became Destiny: Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany (New York: Monthly Review Press 1984).

¹⁰ Nickie Charles and Helen Hintjens (eds), Gender, Ethnicity and Political Ideologies (London: Routledge 2002); Vera Tolz and Stephenie Booth (eds), Nation and Gender in Contemporary Europe (Manchester: Manchester University Press 2005); Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender & Nation (London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi: Sage 1997); Kathleen M. Blee and Sandra McGee Deutsch (eds), Women of the Right: Comparisons and Interplay across Borders (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 2012).

¹¹ Liz Fekete, ‘Enlightened fundamentalism? Immigration, feminism and the Right’, Race & Class, vol. 48, no. 2, 2006, 1–22; Halleh Ghorashi, ‘From absolute invisibility to extreme visibility: emancipation trajectory of migrant women in the Netherlands’, Feminist Review, vol. 94, no. 1, 2010, 75–92; Eva Geudeker and Frances Gouda (eds), Gemengde gevoelens: Gender, etniciteit en (post)kolonialisme, Jaarboek voor Vrouwengeschiedenis, vol. 27 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press 2007); Baukje Prins and Sawitri Saharso, ‘In the spotlight: a blessing and a curse for immigrant women in the Netherlands’, Ethnicities, vol. 8, no. 3, 2008, 365–84; Conny Roggeband and Mieke Verloo, ‘Dutch women are liberated, migrant women are a problem: the evolution of policy frames on gender and migration in the Netherlands, 1995–2005’, Social Policy & Administration, vol. 41, no. 3, 2007, 271–88.

¹² Christine M. Jacobsen and Dag Stenvoll, ‘Muslim women and foreign prostitutes: victim discourse, subjectivity, and governance’, Social Politics, vol. 17, no. 3, 2010, 270–94; Peter Morey and Amina Yaqin, Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation after 9/11 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2011).

¹³ But see Stefanie Mayer, Edma Ajanovic and Birgit Sauer, ‘Intersections and inconsistencies: framing gender in right-wing populist discourses in Austria’, NORA: Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research (Latest Articles), 21 October 2014, doi: 10.1080/080388740.2014.964300.

¹⁴ Cas Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe.

¹⁵ Cas Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe.

¹⁶ See, for example, Mudde and Kaltwasser (eds), Populism in Europe and the Americas; Stijn van Kessel, Populist Parties in Europe: Agents of Discontent? (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2015); and Kurt Weyland, ‘Neoliberal populism in Latin America and Eastern Europe’, Comparative Politics, vol. 31, no. 4, 1999, 379–401.

¹⁷ Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe.

¹⁸ Karen Celis, Sarah Childs, Johanna Kantola and Mona Lena Krook, ‘Rethinking women’s substantive representation’, Representation, vol. 44, no. 2, 2008, 99–110.

¹⁹ Weyland, ‘Clarifying a contested concept’.

²⁰ Margaret Canovan, ‘Trust the people! Populism and the two faces of democracy’, Political Studies, vol. 47, no. 1, 1999, 2–16; Jan Jagers and Stefaan Walgrave, ‘Populism as political communication style: an empirical study of political parties’ discourse in Belgium’, European Journal of Political Research, vol. 46, no. 3, 2007, 319–45; Benjamin Moffitt and Simon Tormey, ‘Rethinking populism: politics, mediatisation and political style’, Political Studies, vol. 62, no. 2, 2014, 381–97.

²¹ Mudde, ‘The populist zeitgeist’.

²² Agnes Akkerman, Cas Mudde and Andrej Zaslove, ‘How populist are the people? Measuring populist attitudes in voters’, Comparative Political Studies, vol. 47, no. 9, 2014, 1324–53.

²³ Agnes Akkerman, Cas Mudde and Andrej Zaslove, ‘How populist are the people? Measuring populist attitudes in voters’, Comparative Political Studies, vol. 47, no. 9, 2014, 1324–53.; Mudde and Kaltwasser (eds), Populism in Europe and the Americas.

²⁴ Akkerman, Mudde and Zaslove, ‘How populist are the people?’; Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser, ‘Exclusionary vs. inclusionary populism: comparing contemporary Europe and Latin America’, Government and Opposition, vol. 48, no. 2, 2013, 147–74.

²⁵ Mudde, ‘The populist zeitgeist’, 543.

²⁶ Mudde and Kaltwasser, ‘Exclusionary vs. inclusionary populism’.

²⁷ Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe, 19.

²⁸ Tjitske Akkerman, ‘Anti-immigration parties and the defence of liberal values: the exceptional case of the List Pim Fortuyn’, Journal of Political Ideologies, vol. 10, no. 3, 2005, 337–54; Hans-Georg Betz, ‘Against the “green totalitarianism”: anti-Islamic nativism in contemporary radical right-wing populism in Western Europe’, in Christina Schori Liang (ed.), Europe for the Europeans: The Foreign and Security Policy of the Populist Radical Right (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing 2007), 33–54; Betz and Meret, ‘Revisiting Lepanto’; Zúquete, ‘The European extreme-right and Islam’.

²⁹ The parties included in the table should not be considered as an exhaustive contemporary or historical list of PRR parties in Western Europe. Each party listed, however, is part of the contemporary PRR party family. In some countries more PRR parties are or have been active, and some contributions to the special issue discuss of mention other parties. The parties listed here are the main parties that allow comparative analyses across the contributions.

³⁰ Fiona Mackay, ‘Gender and political representation in the UK: the state of the “discipline”’, British Journal of Politics & International Relations, vol. 6, no. 1, 2004, 99–120.

³¹ Karen Celis and Sarah Childs, ‘Introduction: The descriptive and substantive representation of women: New directions’, Parliamentary Affairs, vol. 61, no. 3, 2008, 419–25; Celis, Childs, Kantola and Krook, ‘Rethinking women’s substantive representation’.

³² See Eelco Harteveld, Wouter van der Brug, Stefan Dahlberg and Andrej Kokkonen, ‘The gender gap in populist radical-right voting: examining the demand side in Western and Eastern Europe’, and Niels Spierings and Andrej Zaslove, ‘Gendering the vote for radical-right parties’, in these pages. The voting behaviour literature, following the colloquial use of the word ‘gender’, has a tendency to talk about a ‘gender gap’ in voting behaviour, while what it is actually referring to is, in our terminology, a sex gap. In line with this, the contributions to this issue use different terms.

³³ Georgia Duerst-Lahti and Rita Mae Kelly (eds), Gender Power, Leadership, and Governance (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 1995), 18; Mackay, ‘Gender and political representation in the UK’, 110.

³⁴ Iris Marion Young, ‘Gender as seriality: thinking about women as a social collective’, Signs, vol. 19, no. 3, 1994, 713–38 (734).

³⁵ Iris Marion Young, ‘Gender as seriality: thinking about women as a social collective’, Signs, vol. 19, no. 3, 1994, 724, 737.

³⁶ See, among others, Leslie McCall, ‘The complexity of intersectionality’, Signs, vol. 30, no. 3, 2005, 1771–800; Liza Mügge and Sara de Jong, ‘Intersectionalizing European politics: bridging gender and ethnicity’, Politics, Groups and Identities, vol. 1, no. 3, 2013, 380–9.

³⁷ Anne Phillips, The Politics of Presence (Oxford and New York: Clarendon Press 1995); Lena Wängnerud, ‘Women in parliaments: descriptive and substantive representation’, Annual Review of Political Science, vol. 12, 2009, 51–69; Young, ‘Gender as seriality’.

³⁸ See Leslie A. Schwindt‐Bayer and William Mishler, ‘An integrated model of women’s representation’, Journal of Politics, vol. 67, no. 2, 2005, 407–28; Wängnerud, ‘Women in parliaments’; Young, ‘Gender as seriality’.

³⁹ Celis, Childs, Kantola and Krook, ‘Rethinking women’s substantive representation’.

⁴⁰ Karen Celis and Sarah Childs, ‘The substantive representation of women: what to do with conservative claims?’, Political Studies, vol. 60, no. 1, 2012, 213–25 (214).

⁴¹ See Samira Bendadi, Dolle Amina’s: feminisme in de Arabische Wereld (Amsterdam: Meulenhoff 2008); Susan Archer Mann and Douglas J. Huffman, ‘The decentering of second-wave feminism and the rise of the third wave’, Science and Society, vol. 69, no. 1, 2005, 56–91; Eva Midden, ‘Feminism and cultural and religious diversity in Opzij: an analysis of the discourse of a Dutch feminist magazine’, European Journal of Women’s Studies, vol. 19, no. 2, 2012, 219–35; Sylvia Walby, The Future of Feminism (Cambridge: Polity Press 2011).

⁴² Celis and Childs, ‘The substantive representation of women’.

⁴³ See Celis, Childs, Kantola and Krook, ‘Rethinking women’s substantive representation’.

⁴⁴ Mary Hawkesworth, ‘Sex, gender, and sexuality: from naturalized presumption to analytical categories’, in Georgina Waylen, Karen Celis, Johanna Kantola and S. Laurel Weldon (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Gender and Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2013), 31–56.

⁴⁵ Craig Calhoun (ed.), Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford: Blackwell 1994); Sanne Elfering, Niels Spierings and Evelien Sombekke, Kansen voor LHBT-emancipatie-beleid in Europa: Een onderzoek naar de verbanden tussen gendergelijkheid, culturele waarden en LHBT-emancipatie (Nijmegen: ITS/IGS 2013); Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley: University of California Press 1990).

⁴⁶ See also Norocel, ‘Constructing radical right populist resistance’.

⁴⁷ See Nancy C. M. Hartsock, ‘Standpoint theories for the next century’, Women & Politics (now Journal of Women, Politics & Policy), vol. 18, no. 3, 1998, 93–101.

⁴⁸ Catharine MacKinnon, ‘Difference and dominance: on sex discrimination’, in Anne Phillips (ed.), Feminism and Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1998), 295–313.

⁴⁹ Lene Hansen, ‘Security, violence and war’, in Waylen, Celis, Kantola and Weldon (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Gender and Politics, ch. 33.