Settler memory and Indigenous counter-memories: narrative struggles over the history of colonialism in Aotearoa New Zealand

Figures & data

Figure 1. Recall of most important historical event by birth cohort (in percent).

Table 1. Multinomial logistic regression predicting most important historical event.

	Dependent variable categories^a
Independent variables	Treaty of Waitangi	New Zealand Wars	Polynesian discovery/settlement
Age	−.033*** (.007)	−.047** (.016)	.016 (.009)
Female	.522* (.238)	−.094 (.518)	.263 (.303)
Māori	.739* (.394)	.657 (.684)	1.230** (.468)
Education^b
NCEA Level 1	−1.137 (.769)	.001 (1.44)	−.468 (.932)
NCEA Level 2	−.795 (.772)	.009 (1.39)	−1.08 (1.03)
NCEA Level 3	−1.76* (.723)	−2.41 (1.60)	−.972 (.909)
Vocational qualification	−1.41* (.651)	−.965 (.127)	−.790 (.789)
Undergraduate degree	−1.61* (.668)	−1.37 (1.31)	−.178 (.796)
Postgraduate degree	−.810 (.745)	−0.91 (1.38)	.063 (.887)
Political orientation^c	.204* (.100)	.698** (.212)	.324* (.125)
Nagelkerke R^2	.271

Entries are coefficients from multinomial regression analysis; standard errors are in parentheses.

^aEuropean discovery/settlement is the reference category for the dependent variable.

^bNo formal qualification is the reference category.

^cCoded from extremely conservative (1) to extremely liberal (7).

*** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05.

Figure 2. Symbolic projection (mean score) by historical event and ethnic group.

Notes: Whiskers represent the 95% confidence interval. (Māori) after historical event indicates Māori subgroup; all other data is from the Pākehā subgroup.

Table 2. Symbolic projection: Tukey’s post hoc tests for multiple comparisons.

Historical event	Mean difference	N	SD	p	95% CI		Cohen’s d
					Lower	Upper
Treaty of Waitangi (Māori)		96	1.12
European discovery/settlement	1.63	105	1.66	<.001	.984	2.27	1.15
Women’s suffrage	1.40	42	1.47	<.001	.561	2.25	1.08
World War I	1.59	23	1.37	<.001	.529	2.64	1.27
Polynesian discovery/settlement		74	1.43
European discovery/settlement	1.18	105	1.66	<.001	.486	1.87	.764
Women’s suffrage	.954	42	1.47	.022	.074	1.83	.661
World War I	1.14	23	1.37	.032	.049	2.22	.817
Treaty of Waitangi		254	1.43
European discovery/settlement	.955	105	1.66	<.001	.426	1.48	.616

N = observations; SD = standard deviation; CI = confidence interval.

Figure 3. Historical recognition (mean score) by historical event and ethnic group.

Notes: Whiskers represent the 95% confidence interval. (Māori) after historical event indicates Māori subgroup; all other data is from the Pākehā subgroup.

Table 3. Historical recognition: Tukey’s post hoc tests for multiple comparisons.

Historical event	Mean difference	N	SD	p	95% CI		Cohen’s d
					Lower	Upper
Polynesian discovery/settlement (Māori)		18	1.56
European discovery/settlement	1.99	105	1.35	<.001	.889	3.09	1.37
Women’s suffrage	2.00	42	1.16	<.001	.782	3.21	1.45
World War I	1.76	23	1.38	.002	.404	3.12	1.27
Treaty of Waitangi (Māori)		96	1.34
European discovery/settlement	1.90	105	1.35	<.001	1.29	2.51	1.41
Women’s suffrage	1.91	42	1.16	<.001	1.11	2.71	1.52
World War I	1.67	23	1.38	<.001	.671	2.67	1.32
Polynesian discovery/settlement		74	1.50
European discovery settlement	.826	105	1.35	.003	.172	1.48	.579
Treaty of Waitangi		254	1.38
European discovery/settlement	.804	105	1.35	<.001	.304	1.30	.589
Women’s suffrage	.812	42	1.16	.013	.094	1.53	.637

N = observations; SD = standard deviation; CI = confidence interval.

Figure 4. Warmth towards ethnic outgroup (mean score) by historical event and ethnic group.

Notes: Whiskers represent the 95% confidence interval. (Māori) after historical event indicates Māori subgroup; all other data is from the Pākehā subgroup.

Table 4. Warmth towards ethnic outgroup: Tukey’s post hoc tests for multiple comparisons.

Historical event	Mean difference	N	SD	p	95% CI		Cohen’s d
					Lower	Upper
New Zealand Wars		16	1.50
World War I	1.74	23	1.44	.024	.120	3.36	1.18
Polynesian discovery/settlement		74	1.39
European discovery settlement	.777	105	1.61	.038	.020	1.53	.511
World War I	1.42	23	1.44	.006	.230	2.60	.997
Treaty of Waitangi		254	1.53
European discovery/settlement	.624	105	1.61	.022	.050	1.20	.395
World War I	1.26	23	1.44	.009	.180	2.35	.850

N = observations; SD = standard deviation; CI = confidence interval.

Figure 5. Identification with New Zealand (mean score) by historical event and ethnic group.

Notes: Whiskers represent the 95% confidence interval. (Māori) after historical event indicates Māori subgroup; all other data is from the Pākehā subgroup.

Table A1. Descriptive statistics of demographic data.

Variable	Level	N	%
Age	18–24	98	11.7
	25–34	136	16.2
	35–44	104	12.4
	45–54	145	17.3
	55–64	137	16.3
	65+	218	26.0
Gender	Male	429	51.2
	Female	403	48.1
	Other	6	0.7
Ethnic identity	Pākehā	676	80.7
	Māori	162	19.3
Level of education	No formal qualification	69	8.2
	NCEA Level 1	69	8.2
	NCEA Level 2	67	8.0
	NCEA Level 3	87	10.4
	Vocational qualification	261	31.1
	Undergraduate degree	202	24.1
	Postgraduate degree	83	9.9
Political views	Extremely conservative	5	0.6
	Conservative	72	8.6
	Slightly Conservative	120	14.3
	Moderate	388	46.3
	Slightly liberal	108	12.9
	Liberal	123	14.7
	Extremely liberal	22	2.6

Table A2. Most important historical event.

	Pākehā	Māori	Total
Treaty of Waitangi	254 (37.6%)	96 (59.3%)	350 (41.8%)
World War I	23 (3.4%)	8 (4.9%)	31 (3.7%)
Polynesian discovery/settlement	74 (10.9%)	18 (11.1%)	92 (11.0%)
European discovery/settlement	105 (15.5%)	9 (5.6%)	114 (13.6%)
Women’s suffrage	42 (6.2%)	1 (0.6%)	43 (5.1%)
New Zealand Wars	16 (2.4%)	5 (3.1%)	21 (2.5%)
Earthquakes/other geological events	31 (4.6%)	4 (2.5%)	35 (4.2%)
Sports	11 (1.6%)	-	11 (1.3%)
Discovery/settlement	22 (3.3%)	2 (1.2%)	24 (2.9%)
COVID	8 (1.2%)	1 (0.6%)	9 (1.1%)
Māori history/wars	12 (1.8%)	5 (3.1%)	17 (2.0%)
Other/unclear/don’t know	78 (11.5%)	13 (8.0%)	91 (10.9%)