What Kind of Local and Regional Development and for Whom?

Figures & data

Table 1. The eras of ‘Developmentalism’ and ‘Globalism’

World framework	Developmentalism (1940s–1970s)				Globalism (1970s–)
Political economy	State regulated markets Keynesian welfarism				Self-regulating markets (monetarism) Schumpeterian Workfarism
Social goals	Social entitlement and welfare Uniform citizenship				Private initiative via free markets Identity politics versus citizenship
Development (model)	Industrial replication National economic management (Brazil, Mexico, India)				Participation in the world market Comparative advantage (Chile, New Zealand, South Korea)
Mobilizing tool	Nationalism (post-colonialism)				Efficiency (post-developmentalism) Debt and credit-worthiness
Mechanisms	Import-Substitution Industrialisation (ISI) Public investment (infrastructure and energy) Education Land reform				Export-oriented Industrialization (EPO) Agro-exporting Privatization, public and majority-class austerity Entrepreneurialism, sustainable development
Geographical	First World (freedom of enterprise)				National structural adjustment (opening economies)
Variants	Second World (central planning) Third World (modernization via developmental alliance)				Regional free trade agreements Global economic and environmental management
Local and regional dimension	National spatial policy Economic and social focus Growth redistribution				Supranational and devolved (sub-national, regional and local) policy and institutions Economic competitiveness focus Broadening of ‘development’ Regeneration
Timeline	1940s	1950s	1960s	1970s	1980s	1990s	2000s
Markers	United Nations (1943) Bretton Woods (1944) Marshall Plan (1946) Cold War (1946-)	First Development Decade Korean War (1950–53) Non-Aligned Movement (1955)	Second Development Decade Vietnam War (1964–73) Alliance for Progress (1961) UN Conference on Trade Development (1964)	Oil crises (1973, 1979) New International Economic Order Initiative (1974)	Debt Crisis/The Lost Decade Debt regime (supervised state/economy restructuring) (mid-1980s) Neo-liberalism Reaganism, Thatcherism Cold War ends (1989)	Globalization New World Order begins (early 1990s) Earth Summit (1992) Chiapas revolt (1994)	9/11 (2001) Second Gulf conflict (2003) Growth of China and India
Institutional developments	World Bank and IMF (1944) GATT (1947) COMECON (1947) US$ as world reserve currency		Eurodollar and offshore dollar market	Group of Seven (G7) forms (1975)	GATT Uruguay Round (1984) Glasnost and Perestroika in Soviet Union (mid-1980s) IMF and World Bank Structural Adjustment Programmes Single European Market	NAFTA (1994) World Trade Organisation (1995) Asian financial crises (1997) Euro introduction (1999)	Anti-globalization protests (Seattle, Davos, Genoa) (early 2000s) Argentina financial crisis (2002) European Union enlargement (25 Member States) (2004)
Source: Adapted from McMichael (1996).

Table 2. Scales, socio-economic processes and institutional agents

Scale/level	Socio-economic process	Institutional agents
Global	Trading regime liberalization	International Labour Organisation (ILO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO), inter-governmental organizations, nation states
Macro-regional	Information and communication technology network expansion	European Union, Member States, regulatory bodies, private sector providers
National	House price inflation	Central Banks, building societies, borrowers
Sub-national	Transport infrastructure expansion	Public transport bodies, private companies, financial institutions
Regional	University graduate labour retention	Universities, Regional Development Agencies, employers, training providers
Sub-regional	Labour market contraction	Employment services, trade unions, business associations, employers, employees
Local	Local currency experimentation	Local Exchange Trading Systems, households
Neighbourhood	Social exclusion	Local authorities, regeneration partnerships, voluntary groups
Community	Adult literacy extension	Education and training institutions, households, families
Source: Adapted from Pike et al. (2006, p. 37).

Table 3. Distinctions in local and regional development

Dimension	Distinction
Approach	Absolute	Relative
Autonomy	Local, regional	National, supra-national
Direction	Top-down	Bottom-up
Emphasis	Strong	Weak
Focus	Exogenous	Endogenous/indigenous
Institutional lead	State	Market
Inter-territorial relations	Competitive	Co-operative
Measures	Hard	Soft
Quantity/quality	Extent	Nature
Objects	People	Places
Rate	Fast	Slow
Scale	Large	Small
Spatial focus	Local	Regional
Subjects	Growth	Equity
Sustainability	Strong	Weak
Source: Adapted from Pike et al. (2006, p. 39).

Table 4. The objects and subjects of local and regional development

Level/scale	Objects	Subjects
People	Individuals	Education and training
	Households	Homecare services
	Families	Childcare
	Neighbourhoods	Neighbourhood renewal
Spaces, places and territories	Communities	Community regeneration
	Villages	Rural diversification
	Localities	Strategic partnerships
Towns	Market town revival
Cities	Growth strategies
City-regions	Local authority collaboration
Sub-regions	Spatial strategies
Regions	Regional economic strategies
Sub-nations	Economic development strategies
Nations	Regional development
Macro-regions	Economic and social cohesion
International	Aid distribution
Global	Trade liberalization
Source: Adapted from Pike et al. (2006, p. 49)

Figure 1. The Kuznets inverted-U hypothesis

Source: Adapted from Cypher and Dietz (2004, p. 54)

Figure 2. Models of local and regional development policy

Source: Adapted from Pike et al. (2006, p. 106)

Pike , A. , Rodríguez-Pose , A. and Tomaney , J. 2006 . Local and Regional Development , London : Routledge .

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