Migration, communities on the move and international innovation networks: an empirical analysis of Spanish regions

Figures & data

Table 1. Estimation results. Baseline model: stocks of immigrants and emigrants.

Dependent variable: ln (1 + Coinvijt)	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
	1998–2011		2006–11
ln (GDPit–1)	0.088*** (0.014)	0.074*** (0.013)	0.095*** (0.018)	0.080*** (0.018)	0.051*** (0.017)	0.044** (0.017)
ln (1 + Patent_Stockit–1)	0.016*** (0.004)	0.012*** (0.004)	0.024*** (0.008)	0.021*** (0.008)	0.027*** (0.008)	0.025*** (0.008)
ln (Distanceij)	–0.203*** (0.033)	–0.172*** (0.032)	–0.233*** (0.043)	–0.202*** (0.043)	–0.174*** (0.041)	–0.157*** (0.042)
ln (1 + Immiijt–1)		0.031*** (0.005)		0.020*** (0.006)		0.012** (0.006)
ln (1 + Emiijt–1)					0.049*** (0.007)	0.046*** (0.007)
Region–time effects	Yes	Yes		Yes	Yes	Yes
Country–time effects	Yes	Yes		Yes	Yes	Yes
Country–region effects	Yes	Yes		Yes	Yes	Yes
N	46,800	46,800	21,600	21,600	18,000	18,000
R^2	0.585	0.588	0.629	0.630	0.641	0.641
AIC	1658.788	1268.653	4036.367	3975.248	3277.008	3258.307
BIC	17,240.265	16,850.130	13,309.649	13,264.490	11,667.792	11,649.092

Note: Ordinary least squares (OLS) estimates. Robust standard errors clustered at the country–province pair level in parentheses. AIC, Akaike information criterion; BIC, Bayesian information criterion. *p < 0.10; **p < 0.05; ***p < 0.01.

Table 2. Estimation results. Interaction effects of immigrants’ and emigrants’ stocks with social capital. (a) Dependent variable: ln (1 + Coinv_ijt)

	Social capital variables
Interaction effects			Province social capital			Country social capital			Country social capital
									High		Low
									Province social capital
	Period	Model	High	Low	N	High	Low	N	High	Low	High	Low
Immigrants	1998–2011	(1)	0.035*** (0.005)	0.026*** (0.005)	(5)	0.095*** (0.016)	–0.001 (0.006)	(9)	0.106*** (0.017)	0.084*** (0.016)	0.003 (0.006)	–0.004 (0.006)
	2006–11	(2)	0.030*** (0.006)	0.012** (0.006)	(6)	0.082*** (0.018)	–0.009 (0.008)	(10)	0.098*** (0.019)	0.062*** (0.018)	0.001 (0.008)	–0.015* (0.008)
	2006–11	(3)	0.016*** (0.006)	0.008 (0.006)	(7)	0.031* (0.018)	0.002 (0.006)	(11)	0.037** (0.019)	0.012** (0.006)	0.017 (0.018)	–0.002 (0.006)
Emigrants	2006–11	(3)	0.055*** (0.007)	0.038*** (0.007)	(7)	0.129*** (0.022)	0.004 (0.009)	(11)	0.136*** (0.023)	0.123*** (0.022)	–0.000 (0.009)	0.003 (0.009)
	2006–11	(4)	0.062*** (0.008)	0.040*** (0.007)	(8)	0.147*** (0.022)	–0.000 (0.010)	(12)	0.161*** (0.022)	0.135*** (0.022)	0.007 (0.009)	–0.000 (0.010)
(b) Model statistics
Model number	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
N	46,800	21,600	18,000	18,000	23,850	13,000	10,900	10,900	23,850	13,000	10,900	10,900
R^2	0.59	0.63	0.64	0.64	0.64	0.66	0.68	0.68	0.64	0.67	0.69	0.68
AIC	1180	3849	3140	3165	7009	4228	3161	3184	6882	4062	3051	3091
BIC	16,788	13,146	11,562	11,563	16,131	10,169	8546	8555	16,053	10,018	8473	8483

Notes: Ordinary least squares (OLS) estimates for 12 models including interaction effects between different combinations of migration (rows) and social capital variables (columns). Robust standard errors clustered at the country–province pair level are shown in parentheses. *p < 0.10; **p < 0.05; ***p < 0.01. Variables are labelled for clarity: immigrants = ln (1 + Immi_ijt–1); emigrants = ln (1 + Emi_ijt–1); province social capital = Prov_Soc_Cap_it_H or Prov_Soc_Cap_it_L as relevant; country social capital = Country_Soc_Cap_it_H or Country_Soc_Cap_it_L as relevant. Models (3), (7) and (11) include interaction terms of both immigrants and emigrants with social capital. In the other models, the interactions of one of the migration variables are included. All specifications include country–time (which absorb the effects of country-level social capital), region–time and region–country effects as well as ln (GDP_it–1), ln (1 + Patent_Stock_it–1) and ln (Distance_ij), whose coefficients are robust and not shown for brevity. The model statistics are reported in the bottom rows. AIC, Akaike information criterion; BIC, Bayesian information criterion.

Table 3. Estimation results. Interaction of migration with language commonality and human capital.

Dependent variable: ln (1 + Coinvijt)	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)		(5)	(6)
	Language commonality					Human capital
	1998–2011		2006–11			1998–2011	2006–11
ln (GDPit–1)	0.077*** (0.013)	0.085*** (0.018)	0.043*** (0.016)	0.040** (0.017)	ln (GDPit–1)	0.075*** (0.014)	0.084*** (0.020)
ln (1 + Patent_Stockit–1)	0.012*** (0.004)	0.022*** (0.008)	0.029*** (0.008)	0.027*** (0.008)	ln (1 + Patent_Stockit–1)	0.013*** (0.005)	0.024*** (0.009)
ln (Distanceij)	–0.178*** (0.032)	–0.218*** (0.043)	–0.181*** (0.041)	–0.169*** (0.042)	ln (Distanceij)	–0.177*** (0.034)	–0.223*** (0.047)
ln (1 + Immiijt–1)* Spanish-Speakingj	–0.026*** (0.005)	–0.047*** (0.007)		–0.022*** (0.005)	ln (1 + Immiijt)*Qualifiedj	0.057*** (0.008)	0.046*** (0.010)
ln (1 + Immiijt–1)* Non-Spanish-Speakingj	0.040*** (0.006)	0.031*** (0.007)		0.017*** (0.007)	ln (1 + Immiijt)*Non-Qualifiedj	–0.017*** (0.004)	–0.032*** (0.006)
ln (1 + Emiijt–1)* Spanish-Speakingj			–0.025*** (0.006)	–0.009** (0.004)
ln (1 + Emiijt–1)* Non-Spanish-Speakingj			0.075*** (0.009)	0.067*** (0.009)
N	46,800	21,600	18,000	18,000			39,648
R^2	0.591	0.634	0.646	0.647			0.601
AIC	903.070	3764.048	3012.082	2966.952			3635.456
BIC	16,484.547	13,061.271	11,402.867	11,373.333			16,860.661

Note: Ordinary least squares (OLS) estimates. Robust standard errors clustered at the country–province pair level are shown in parentheses. All specifications include country–time, region–time and region–country effects (which absorb the direct effect of language commonality and country level human capital on co-inventions). *p < 0.10; **p < 0.05; ***p < 0.01. AIC, Akaike information criterion; BIC, Bayesian information criterion.