Spatial structure and subjective well-being in North-West Europe

Figures & data

Figure 1. Dimensions of regional spatial structure.

Sources: Ouwehand et al. (2020) (adapted from Meijers & Burger, 2010).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of main variables included in the study.

	Mean	SD	Minimum	Maximum
Life satisfaction	7.50	1.96	0	10
Polycentricity (HHI)	0.78	0.20	0	0.99
Dispersion (ln)	−0.65	0.40	−1.52	−0.03
Urban population (ln)	13.91	1.04	10.86	16.24
Individual control variables
Urban residence	0.63	0.48	0	1
Age	48.40	18.24	14	105
Male	0.48	0.50	0	1
Having a partner	0.61	0.49	0	1
Having children	0.33	0.47	0	1
Percentage higher educated	0.29	0.45	0	1
Employment
Employed	0.52	0.50	0	1
Not in labour force	0.43	0.50	0	1
Unemployed	0.05	0.21	0	1
Household income feeling
Very difficult on present income	0.03	0.17	0	1
Difficult on present income	0.10	0.31	0	1
Coping on present income	0.46	0.50	0	1
Living comfortably on present income	0.41	0.49	0	1
Hampered by health problems?
Yes a lot	0.06	0.24	0	1
Yes to some extent	0.21	0.41	0	1
No	0.73	0.44	0	1
Social meetings
Once a month or less	0.14	0.34	0	1
Several times a month	0.20	0.40	0	1
Once a week	0.18	0.38	0	1
Several times a week	0.33	0.47	0	1
Every day	0.15	0.36	0	1

Note: Observations = 107,815; regions = 68.

Table 2. Multilevel analysis results for the effect of regions’ spatial structure on life satisfaction.

	Model I	Model II	Model III
Regional level
Polycentricity (HH)			0.13* (0.07)
Dispersion (ln)			−0.12* (0.07)
Urban population (ln)			−0.02 (0.02)
Individual level
Urban residence		−0.11*** (0.03)	−0.11*** (0.03)
Male	−0.09*** (0.03)	−0.09*** (0.03)	−0.09*** (0.03)
Age	−0.05*** (0.00)	−0.05*** (0.00)	−0.05*** (0.00)
Age²	0.00*** (0.00)	0.00*** (0.00)	0.00*** (0.00)
Having a partner	0.51*** (0.05)	0.51*** (0.05)	0.51*** (0.05)
Having children	0.09*** (0.03)	0.09*** (0.03)	0.09*** (0.03)
% Higher educated	0.06** (0.03)	0.07*** (0.03)	0.07*** (0.03)
Employment (reference: Employed)
Unemployed	−0.61*** (0.07)	−0.61*** (0.07)	−0.61*** (0.07)
Not in labour force	0.10*** (0.04)	0.11*** (0.04)	0.10*** (0.04)
Household income (reference: Very difficult on present income)
Difficult on present income	0.88*** (0.07)	0.88*** (0.07)	0.88*** (0.07)
Coping on present income	1.78*** (0.09)	1.78*** (0.09)	1.78*** (0.09)
Living comfortably on present income	2.33*** (0.10)	2.34*** (0.10)	2.34*** (0.10)
Hampered by health problems (reference: Yes a lot)
Yes, to some extent	0.70*** (0.03)	0.71*** (0.03)	0.71*** (0.03)
No	1.13*** (0.04)	1.13*** (0.04)	1.13*** (0.04)
Social meetings (Reference: Once a month or less)
Several times a month	0.46*** (0.09)	0.45*** (0.09)	0.45*** (0.09)
Once a week	0.50*** (0.09)	0.50*** (0.09)	0.50*** (0.09)
Several times a week	0.68*** (0.09)	0.68*** (0.09)	0.68*** (0.09)
Every day	0.82*** (0.09)	0.82*** (0.09)	0.82*** (0.09)
Year and country group dummies	Yes	Yes	Yes
Mundlak correction	Yes	Yes	Yes
Observations	107,815	107,815	107,815
Regions	68	68	68

Note: Cluster-robust standard errors are shown in parentheses; ***p < 0.01; **p < 0.05; and *p < 0.1.

Table 3. Interaction effects between different dimensions of spatial structure and life satisfaction – multilevel analysis.

	Interaction polycentricity  and dispersion	Interaction polycentricity and urban population	Interaction dispersion and urban population	Interaction polycentricity and urban residence	Interaction dispersion and urban residence	Interaction urban population and urban residence
	Model I	Model II	Model III	Model IV	Model V	Model VI
Polycentricity (HHI) × Dispersion	0.23**
	(0.10)
Polycentricity (HHI) × Urban population (ln)		−0.08*
		(0.05)
Dispersion (ln) × Urban population (ln)			0.04
			(0.04)
Polycentricity (HHI) × Urban residence				−0.30**
				(0.13)
Dispersion (ln) × Urban residence					−0.10
					(0.08)
Urban population (ln) × Urban residence						0.03
						(0.02)
Polycentricity (HHI)	0.29***	1.16*	0.12*	0.34***	0.14*	0.13*
	(0.09)	(0.60)	(0.07)	(0.11)	(0.07)	(0.07)
Dispersion (ln)	−0.27***	−0.11*	−0.76	−0.11	−0.05	−0.12*
	(0.09)	(0.07)	(0.56)	(0.07)	(0.08)	(0.07)
Urban population (ln)	−0.02	0.05	0.00	−0.02	−0.02	−0.03
	(0.02)	(0.04)	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.03)
Urban residence	−0.11***	−0.11***	−0.11***	0.13	−0.17**	−0.46*
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.09)	(0.08)	(0.24)
Individual controls	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year and country group dummies	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Mundlak correction	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Observations	107,815	107,815	107,815	107,815	107,815	107,815
Regions	68	68	68	68	68	68

Note: Cluster-robust standard errors are shown in parentheses; ***p < 0.01; **p < 0.05; and *p < 0.1.

Ouwehand, W., Van Oort, F., & Cortinovis, N. (2020). Spatial structure and productivity in European regions (Working Paper). Erasmus University Rotterdam.

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Meijers, E., & Burger, M. (2010). Spatial structure and productivity in US metropolitan areas. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 42(6), 1383–1402. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1068/a42151

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