N₂O emissions during the freezing and thawing periods from six fields in a livestock farm, southern Hokkaido, Japan

Figures & data

Table 1. Nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions during the winter and cropping periods and N₂O losses during the winter period for the investigated experiments

Reference	Country	N2O emissions during winter period (kg N ha^−1)	Annual N2O emissions (kg N ha^−1 y^−1)	Emission during winter (%)
Grassland
Wagner-Riddle et al. 1997	Canada	−0.10–0.090	−0.070–0.12	−75–143
Kaiser et al. 1998	Germany	0.57–0.92	1.3–2.4	39–53
Goossens et al. 2001	Belgium	0.59–2.4	2.6–32	7–23
Regina et al. 2004	Finland	0.060–6.7	2.6–9.9	1–68
Syvasalo et al. 2004	Finland	0.54–2.2	1.5–3.9	33–59
Katayanagi et al. 2008 ^†	Japan	0.35–2.4	7.3–82	2–33
Cropland
Goossens et al. 2001	Belgium	0.17–0.59	0.78–1.5	11–76
Wagner-Riddle et al. 2007	Canada	0.42–2.9	0.89–3.3	24–88
Regina et al. 2004	Finland	3.3–19	6.2–24	53–79
Syvasalo et al. 2004	Finland	1.6–7.0	3.7–7.5	42–93
Flessa et al. 1995	Germany	1.1–4.6	9.4–17	11–46
Röver et al. 1998	Germany	1.1–2.3	1.8–3.5	67–78
Kaiser et al. 1998	Germany	1.7–2.0	3.3–6.2	30–61
Teepe et al. 2000	Germany	2.8	4.8	58
Ruser et al. 2001	Germany	0.73–3.3	1.3–6.9	40–58
Sehy et al. 2003	Germany	0.30–1.7	3.1–10	10–20
Koga et al. 2004	Japan	0.00–2.1	0.09–2.4	0–89
Bremner et al. 1980	United States	0.030–0.44	0.34–2.0	8–26
Katayanagi et al. 2008 ^†	Japan	0.010–0.77	1.1–12	1–24
^†The winter period emission and the emission rate during the winter are unpublished data.

Table 2. Soil properties at 0–100 mm depth at the study site in Shizunai Experimental Livestock Farm

Site	Land-use type^†	Total carbon^‡ (g kg^−1)	Total N^‡ (g kg^−1)	Bulk density^‡ (Mg m^−3)	D/D0 ^§
C2	C	60.8	4.5	0.60	0.0635
CG	G	41.8	3.5	0.78	0.00684
G2s	G	32.2	3.0	0.81	0.00113
G2c	G	42.4	3.4	0.68	0.00429
G2n	G	49.7	4.3	0.63	0.00132
G3	G	75.2	5.4	0.65	0.00143
^†Cornfield (Zea mays L.), C; Grassland (Phalaris arundinacea L. and/or Phleum pratense L.), G; Nitrogen, N.
^‡The values were reported by Katayanagi et al. (2008)
^§Relative gas diffusion coefficients (D/D0) of soil core samples were measured using the method proposed by Osozawa (1998). The data was measured using soils collected on 19 April 2005.

Table 3. Slurry and manure application after the cropping season and nitrogen (N) surplus in 2004 at the study site in Shizunai Experimental Livestock Farm. Slurry was applied on 19 October 2004 and manure was applied on 1 November 2004

	Slurry	Manure	Slurry + Manure	Nitrogen Surplus^†
Site	(kg N ha^−1)	(kg N ha^−1)	(kg N ha^−1)	(kg N ha^−1)
C2	9	123	132	16
CG	0	38	38	99
G2s	0	0	0	24
G2c	0	0	0	24
G2n	0	0	0	24
G3	0	43	43	−12
^†Katayanagi et al. (2008).

Figure 1. Temporal variability of precipitation observed at the Sasayama Weather Station in the Shizunai Experimental Livestock Farm, and air temperature and snow depth observed at the Shizunai Experimental Station, from December 2004 to April 2005.

Figure 2. Temporal variability of (a) soil temperature at 50 mm depth, (b) nitrous oxide (N₂O) flux, (c) nitric oxide (NO) flux, (d) N₂O-N/NO-N ratio, and (e) N₂O concentration in soil with soil freezing depths at one cornfield (C₂) and three grasslands (CG [converted from a cornfield in 2003], G₂ [including G_2s, G_2c and G_2n], and G₃) from December 2004 to April 2005. The lines in e) indicate the edge of the frozen soil layers and the soil between the lines froze.

Figure 3. Ammonium-nitrogen (-N), nitrate-nitrogen (-N), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations in soil at a 0−50 mm depth at the research sites in the Shizunai Experimental Livestock Farm. Measurements were carried out on 8th (C₂, CG and G₃) or 18^th (G_2s, G_2c, and G_2n) December 2004 before soil freezing, on 31^st March 2005 just after the start of soil thawing, and on 19th April 2005 at the end of the thawing period. Paired t-test was used to test for statistically significant differences between the data observed on 8^th Dec 2004 and 19^th April 2005 for each site. Levels of significance were as follows: *<0.05, **<0.01, ***<0.001.

Table 4. Nitrous oxide (N₂O) and N₂O + dinitrogen (N₂) fluxes and N₂O/(N₂O+N₂) ratio measured by denitrification enzyme activity in soils collected from the study site at Shizunai Experimental Livestock Farm just after the soil thawing on 31 March 2005

	N2O flux^† (µg N kg^−1 h^−1)		N2O+N2 flux^† (µg N kg^−1 h^−1)		N2O/(N2O+N2)	P values^‡ N2O × N2O+N^‡
Site	n	Mean ± S.D.	n	Mean ± S.D.
C2	3	0.478 ± 0.122^a	3	0.519 ± 0.107^a	0.922	0.688^ns
CG	3	0.466 ± 0.106^a	3	0.229 ± 0.0485^a	2.03	0.0244*
G2s	3	1.60 ± 0.899^a,b	3	14.0 ± 11.4^a,b	0.114	0.132^ns
G2c	2	3.84 ± 1.53^a,b	2	73.6 ± 11.9^c	0.0522	0.0144*
G2n	3	5.45 ± 4.31^a,b	3	19.3 ± 32.3^a,b	0.282	0.503^ns
G3	3	6.63 ± 0.720^b	3	51.3 ± 15.0^b,c	0.129	0.00681**
^†The values are means with standard deviation (S.D.). Different letters indicate significant differences among the means for each site by Tukey-Kramer test at p < 0.05. There were no significant differences among N2O/(N2O+N2) at all sites.
^‡The difference between the means of N2O and N2O+N2 was tested by t-test for each site. Levels of significance were as follows: *<0.05; **<0.01; ***< 0.001; ns, not significant.

Wagner-Riddle , C , Thurtell , GW , Kidd , GK , Beauchamp , EG and Sweetman , R . 1997 . Estimates of nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural fields over 28 months . Can. J. Soil Sci. , 77 : 135 – 144 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kaiser , E-A , Kohrs , K , Kucke , M , Schnug , Munch , JC and Heinemeyer , O . 1998 . Nitrous oxide release from arable soil: importance of perennial forage crops . Biol. Fert. Soils , 28 : 36 – 43 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Goossens , A , Visscher , AD , Boeckx , P and Cleemput , OV . 2001 . Two-year field study on the emission of N2O from coarse and middle-textured Belgian soils with different land use . Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. , 60 : 23 – 34 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Regina , K , Syvasalo , E , Hannukkala , A and Esala , M . 2004 . Fluxes of N2O from farmed peat soils in Finland . Eur. J. Soil Sci. , 55 : 591 – 599 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Syvasalo , E , Regina , K , Pihlatie , M and Esala , M . 2004 . Emissions of nitrous oxide from boreal agricultural clay and loamy sand soils . Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. , 69 : 155 – 165 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Katayanagi , N , Sawamoto , T , Hayakawa , A and Hatano , R . 2008 . Nitrous oxide and nitric oxide fluxes from cornfield, grassland, pasture and forest in a watershed in Southern Hokkaido, Japan . Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. , 54 : 662 – 680 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Wagner-Riddle , C , Furon , A , Mclaughlin , NL , Lee , I , Barbeau , J , Jayasundara , S , Parkin , G , Von Bertoldi , P and Warl , J . 2007 . Intensive measurement of nitrous oxide emissions from a corn-soybean-wheat rotation under two contrasting management systems over 5 years . Glob. Change Biol. , 13 : 1722 – 1736 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Flessa , H , Dörsch , P and Beese , F . 1995 . Seasonal variation of N2O and CH4 fluxes in differently managed arable soils in southern Germany . J. Geophys. Res. , 100 : 23115 – 23124 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Röver , M , Heinemeyer , O and Kaiser , E-A . 1998 . Microbial induced nitrous oxide emissions from an arable soil during winter . Soil Biol. Biochem. , 30 : 1859 – 1865 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Teepe , R , Brumme , R and Beese , F . 2000 . Nitrous oxide emissions from frozen soils under agricultural, fallow and forest land . Soil Biol. Biochem. , 32 : 1807 – 1810 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ruser , R , Flessa , H , Schilling , R , Beese , F and Munch , JC . 2001 . Effect of crop-specific field management and N fertilization on N2O emissions from a fine-loamy soil . Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. , 59 : 177 – 191 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sehy , U , Ruser , R and Munch , JC . 2003 . Nitrous oxide fluxes from maize fields: relationship to yield, site-specific fertilization, and soil conditions . Agr Ecosyst. Environ. , 99 : 97 – 111 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Koga , N , Tsuruta , H , Sawamoto , T , Nishimura , S and Yagi , K . 2004 . N2O emission and CH4 uptake in arable fields managed under conventional and reduced tillage cropping systems in northern Japan . Global Biogeochem. Cycles , 18 : GB4025

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bremner , JM , Robbins , SG and Blackmer , AM . 1980 . Seasonal variability in emission of nitrous oxide from soil . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 7 : 641 – 644 .

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Osozawa , S . 1998 . A simple method for determining the gas diffusion coefficient in soils and its application to soil diagnosis and analysis of gas movement in soil . Bulletin NIAES , 15 : 1 – 66 . (in Japanese with English summary)

 Google Scholar