Properties and classification of volcanic ash soils around Lake Kuwanuma on the eastern footslope of Mt. Funagata in Miyagi prefecture, northeastern Japan

Figures & data

Figure 1 Locations of the pedons in the present study. Thick lines approximately indicate the boundaries between different soils except for rocky land on steep slope and a bank of the lake Kuwanuma (National Land Agency 1994).

Table 1 Pedon locations and soil names in the local soil map and Classification of Forest Soil in Japan, United Soil Classification System of Japan

Pedon no. (altitude)	Latitude	Longitude	Soil name in the local soil map^†	Forest soil^‡	USCSJ-2nd^§
1 (786m)	N 38°26’21.5″	E 140°41’50.6″	Ando soils	Brown Forest Soils	Typic Brown Kuroboku soils
2 (791m)	N 38°26’22.3″	E 140°41’47.7″	Ando soils	Dark Brown Forest Soils	Typic Allophanic Kuroboku soils
3 (800m)	N 38°26’27.9″	E 140°41’43.4″	Brown forest soils (Dark)	Brown Forest Soils	Typic Non-allophanic Kuroboku soils
4 (948m)	N 38°26’29.1″	E 140°41’12.8″	Brown forest soils (Dark)	Dry Podzolic Soils	Typic Brown Kuroboku soils
5 (1044 m)	N 38°25’54.5″	E 140°41’34.0″	Dry podzols soils	Dark Brown Forest Soils	Typic Brown Kuroboku soils
6 (1071 m)	N 38°25’47.5″	E 140°41’39.2″	Wet podzols soils	Dry Podzolic Soils	Typic Brown Kuroboku soils

^†National Land Agency (1994).

^‡Classification of Forest Soil in Japan (1975) (Forest Soil Division 1976).

^§Classificatin of Unified Soil Classification System of Japan—2nd approximation (2002) (The Fourth Committee for Soil Classification and Nomenclature The Japanese Cociety of Pedology 2003). Kuroboku properties were identified by Al_o + Fe_o/2 value of 20 g kg⁻¹ or more. N and E denote the north latitude and east longitude.

Figure 2 Schematic representation of the soil profiles studied. asl, above sea level.

Table 2 Morphological and physical properties

Horizon	Depth	Moist color	Coarse sand	Medium sand	Fine sand	Silt	Clay	Glass content	Texture^†	Structure^‡	Boundary^§	Bulk Density	Water content
	(cm)		(g kg ^−1)					(%)				(g cm^−3)	(%)
Pedon 1
Oi	13–10	7.5YR4/6									GW
Oa	10–0	7.5YR2/2	42	109	152	331	366	22.4	cl		CW	0.29
AB	0–12	7.5YR2/3	50	134	153	355	308	12.4	cl	sbk	GW	0.34	79
Bw1	12–37	7.5YR4/4	74	131	111	328	357	14.8	cl	sbk		0.46	79
Bw2	37–52	7.5YR4/4	96	115	90	312	387	12.2	cl	sbk			74
Bw3	52-72	7.5YR3.5/4	95	113	87	299	405	2.6	c	sbk			68
Pedon 2
Oi	15–7	7.5YR2/3									CW	0.32
Oa	7–0	7.5YR2/1									CW	0.50
AB	0–3	7.5YR2/3	18	118	224	395	244	18.1	l	gr	CW	0.47	59
BE	3–7	7.5YR4/4	27	134	196	395	248	20.2	l	sbk	CW	0.47	52
Bw1	7–21	7.5YR4/3.5	73	136	116	341	334	3.1	cl	sbk	GW	0.55	54
Bw2	21–40	7.5YR5/6	95	172	133	385	216	1.6	l	sbk	GW		41
2Bw3	40–63	7.5YR5/4	70	99	172	424	235	1.5	l	sbk	GW		33
2Bw4	63–80	7.5YR5/4	49	121	159	374	296	0.3	cl	sbk			32
Pedon 3
Oi	11–6	5YR2/4									CS
Oa	6–0	7.5YR2/2									CS
A	0–11	7.5YR3/3	30	129	194	405	241	22.9	l	sbk	CW	0.40	89
Bw1	11–24	7.5YR4/6	112	161	92	311	325	2.0	cl	sbk	GW	0.58	55
2Bw2	24–42	10YR4/4	112	176	100	340	272	3.6	cl	sbk	CW	0.87	39
2Bw3	42–56	10YR4/3.5	75	113	114	384	314	3.7	cl	sbk	GW		32
3A2	56–81	7.5YR4/3	37	98	127	501	237	0.7	cl	sbk			29
Pedon 4
Oi	14–7	7.5YR2/2									CS
Oe	7–0	7.5YR2/1.5									CS
AE	0–9	7.5YR3/3	73	145	253	355	174	23.1	l	abk	CW	0.41	65
AE/C	9–14	7.5YR 3/3/10YR6/3	14	148	251	388	200	22.6	l	m	CW	0.63	45
Bh	14-20	7.5YR4/4	52	126	168	370	284	13.4	cl	abk	GW	0.55	55
Bs	20–32	7.5YR4/6	92	143	104	339	322	7.7	cl	sbk	GW	0.58	58
Bw	32–49	7.5YR5/4	96	114	78	335	378	4.5	cl	sbk		0.61	55
Pedon 5
Oi	12–6	7.5YR3/4									CS
Oa	6–0	7.5YR1.7/1									CS	0.17
A	0–10	7.5YR2/3	18	166	279	374	164	23.2	l	sbk	CW	0.41	45
Bw1	10–22	7.5YR4/4	114	134	110	307	335	7.4	cl	sbk	GW	0.47	76
Bw2	22–31	7.5YR4/3	133	128	100	286	353	4.2	cl	sbk	CS	0.49	77
2BC1	31–43	10YR5/4	221	174	92	243	271	4.6	scl	sbk	AW	0.50	60
2BC2, BCR	43+	7.5YR4/4	182	137	76	273	332	1.7	cl	–			77
Pedon 6
Oi	9–0	7.5YR4/3									CS
A	0–7	7.5YR2/1	27	123	219	377	253	24.4	l	gr	CS	0.28	50
EB	7–12	7.5YR3/3	45	149	206	372	228	22.9	l	sbk	CS	0.52	72
Bs1	12–25	7.5YR3/4	97	163	129	314	296	10.9	cl	sbk	GS	0.33	94
Bs2	25–44	7.5YR5/4	120	168	81	271	360	0.6	cl	sbk	GS	0.71	72
Bw1	44–66	10YR5/4	95	125	114	359	308	2.0	cl	sbk	GS		40
Bw2	66-91	10YR5/3.5	72	132	119	393	284	1.0	cl	sbk			31

Coarse sand, 2–0.2 mm; medium sand, 0.2–0.05 mm; fine sand, 0.05–0.02 mm; silt, 0.02–0.002 mm; clay, < 0.002mm.

^†Description of texture: l = loam; scl = sandy clay loam; cl = clay loam; c = clay.

^‡Description of structure: gr = granular; abk = angular blocky; sbk = subangular blocky; m = massive.

^§Description of boundary: A = abrupt; C = clear; G = gradual; S = smooth; W = wavy.

Table 3 Chemical properties

	Soil pH		Total C		CEC	NH4OAc-extr. Bases (cmolc kg^−1)				Base sat.
Horizon	H2O	KCl	(g kg^−1)	Melanic index	(cmolc kg^−1)	Ca	Mg	K	Na	%
Pedon 1
Oi			494
Oa	4.1	3.4	236	2.1	53.9	4.1	0.9	0.4	0.1	10.4
AB	4.9	4.2	121	2.3	31.5	1.3	0.2	0.2	0.1	5.8
Bw1	5.3	4.7	55		13.3	0.7	0.1	0.1	0.1	7.1
Bw2	5.4	4.8	51		15.8	0.6	0.1	0.1	0.1	5.4
Bw3	5.4	4.9	41		13.0	0.5	0.1	0.1	0.2	7.1
Pedon 2
Oi			531
Oa	3.9	2.9	320	1.9	80.0	4.3	1.9	0.7	0.3	8.9
AB	4.9	3.9	127	2.2	38.1	1.6	0.3	0.3	0.1	6.0
BE	5.2	4.4	66		19.9	0.6	0.1	0.2	0.1	5.3
Bw1	5.4	4.7	34		17.3	0.7	0.3	0.1	0.1	6.8
Bw2	5.6	4.3	15		20.8	0.7	1.1	0.2	0.1	10.3
2Bw3	5.4	4.0	7		31.7	1.1	2.6	0.2	0.2	12.6
2Bw4	5.5	3.9	7		32.8	4.8	5.2	0.0	0.2	31.2
Pedon 3
Oi	3.8	3.1	479
Oa	4.1	3.1	269	2.0	69.9	4.8	1.7	0.4	0.1	10.1
A	4.8	3.7	131	2.2	33.6	0.6	0.3	0.2	0.1	3.3
Bw1	5.1	4.5	46		14.8	0.1	0.0	0.1	0.1	2.5
2Bw2	5.2	4.3	11		12.9	0.1	0.0	0.1	0.3	4.5
2Bw3	5.2	3.9	6		15.1	0.4	0.1	0.1	0.5	7.3
3A2	5.2	3.7	2		20.4	0.7	0.4	0.1	1.0	10.9
Pedon 4
Oi			469
Oe	4.0	3.3	468
AE	4.8	4.0	111	2.2	31.9	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	2.0
AE/C	5.0	4.4	59	2.2	13.6	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	2.8
Bh	5.1	4.4	68		15.2	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	2.6
Bs	5.1	4.6	39		12.3	0.0	0.0	0.1	0.1	2.1
Bw	5.1	4.8	34		14.6	0.1	0.0	0.1	0.2	2.8
Pedon 5
Oi	3.8	3.0	489
Oa	3.5	3.2	299	2.0
A	4.8	3.9	126	2.2	30.2	0.2	0.2	0.1	0.1	2.2
Bw1	5.2	4.4	98		26.0	0.1	0.1	0.0	0.1	0.9
Bw2	5.3	4.7	89		21.0	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.1	1.0
2BC1	5.3	4.9	47		14.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.1	0.8
2BC2, BCR	5.2	4.9	58		16.8	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.7
Pedon 6
Oi	3.6	2.7	508
A	4.1	3.6	150	2.1	37.5	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	1.8
EB	4.6	3.9	97		25.2	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	1.9
Bs1	4.9	4.3	79		22.7	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	1.6
Bs2	5.0	4.8	51		16.2	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.1	1.1
Bw1	5.1	4.7	15		17.2	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.2	3.1
Bw2	5.3	3.9	7		21.4	0.6	0.3	0.0	0.5	6.4

NH₄OAc and CEC denote ammonium acetate and cation exchange capacity, respectively.

Table 4 Properties regarding non-crystalline materials

	P ret.	Alo	Feo	Sio	Alo + Feo/2	Alp	Fep		(Feo + Alo)/clay	(Fep + Alp)/clay
Horizon	(%)	(g kg^−1)	(g kg^−1)	(g kg^−1)	(%)	(g kg^−1)	(g kg^−1)	Alp/Alo	(%)	(%)
Pedon 1
Oi		3.9	1.6	0.3	0.5
Oa	45.7	9.6	9.9	0.3	1.4				8.8
AB	96.7	29.2	13.4	4.4	3.6	18.2	12.0	0.6	17.4	12.3
Bw1	98.9	41.4	17.2	12.3	5.0	8.2	5.4	0.2	18.1	4.2
Bw2	99.2	45.7	17.5	14.6	5.4	8.4	5.3	0.2	17.9	3.9
Bw3	97.2	46.1	16.2	14.6	5.4	7.3	4.0	0.2	16.5	3.0
Pedon 2
Oi		3.6	1.5	0.1	0.4
Oa		6.7	5.7	0.3	1.0
AB	91.9	20.1	15.5	1.6	2.8	13.8	13.7	0.7	18.6	14.3
BE	97.9	30.9	13.5	6.5	3.8	10.9	8.3	0.4	20.2	8.7
Bw1	96.2	33.7	14.8	9.2	4.1	6.4	1.8	0.2	15.4	2.6
Bw2	99.9	24.2	9.9	4.9	2.9	6.5	1.5	0.3	16.2	3.8
2Bw3	98.6	17.3	6.4	2.6	2.0	5.9	1.6	0.3	10.2	3.2
2Bw4	94.6	14.2	5.2	1.7	1.7	4.4	0.7	0.3	6.6	1.7
Pedon 3
Oi		2.8	1.9	1.1	0.4
Oa		5.1	5.7	1.0	0.8
A	98.8	11.9	21.4	1.5	2.3	8.7	18.8	0.7	17.8	14.7
Bw1	97.9	36.4	15.9	10.4	4.4	8.5	6.0	0.2	17.4	4.8
2Bw2	92.9	21.1	11.4	5.1	2.7	4.9	3.0	0.2	12.2	2.9
2Bw3	68.4	11.1	8.1	2.0	1.5	2.9	2.3	0.3	6.2	1.7
3A2	44.9	9.1	6.2	1.9	1.2	1.7	0.7	0.2	6.5	1.0
Pedon 4
Oi		4.0	2.8	1.0	0.5
Oe	29.4	8.4	4.2	1.8	1.0
AE	87.1	13.9	11.9	2.8	2.0	12.1	10.4	0.9	18.2	15.9
AE/C	91.4	19.0	10.2	5.5	2.4	10.7	7.5	0.6	16.3	10.1
Bh	89.0	23.6	19.9	6.7	3.4	12.0	13.4	0.5	17.3	10.1
Bs	98.2	24.5	29.8	7.9	3.9	8.0	10.7	0.3	18.0	6.2
Bw	99.4	34.9	20.0	13.4	4.5	6.3	3.6	0.2	15.4	2.8
Pedon 5
Oi		5.1	2.5	1.5	0.6
Oa		7.7	5.5	0.6	1.1
A	81.6	16.7	20.4	1.4	2.7	12.4	16.3	0.7	28.8	22.3
Bw1	97.9	31.5	35.6	4.9	4.9	19.3	26.7	0.6	24.0	16.5
Bw2	99.7	59.4	23.3	17.1	7.1	15.1	11.7	0.3	27.5	8.9
2BC1	99.1	53.6	13.7	19.0	6.1	8.4	2.9	0.2	27.1	4.5
2BC2, BCR	99.7	62.2	17.7	22.7	7.1	9.8	4.0	0.2	26.7	4.6
Pedon 6
Oi		4.2	3.7	2.5	0.6
A	55.9	9.7	17.3	3.3	1.8	6.9	15.0	0.7	14.3	11.6
EB	82.1	13.4	21.3	3.3	2.4	10.6	18.6	0.8	18.2	15.3
Bs1	98.2	33.2	31.0	8.6	4.9	16.9	25.4	0.5	25.1	16.5
Bs2	99.2	65.2	14.8	22.1	7.3	8.6	2.2	0.1	24.4	3.3
Bw1	92.9	23.4	11.2	9.9	2.9	4.1	2.1	0.2	11.5	2.1
Bw2	88.6	20.8	7.8	9.6	2.5	2.9	0.7	0.1	10.2	1.3

Alo, Feo and Sio denote oxalate extractable Al, Fe and Si, respectively.

Alp and Fep denote pyrophosphate extractable Al and Fe, respectively.

Figure 3 Vertical distributions of pyrophosphate-extractable aluminum (Al_p) and iron (Fe_p).

Figure 4 X-ray powder diffraction pattern of the 0.2–0.5-mm fraction prepared from the A horizon of pedon 6. Q, F and C denote quartz, feldspar and cristobalite, respectively. Kα denote alpha line from K shell of copper.

Figure 5 X-ray powder diffraction patterns of the clay fraction from the EB horizon of pedon 6 after (a) magnesium (Mg) saturation, (b) Mg saturation and glycerol solvation, (c) K saturation at room temperature, (d) K saturation and heating at 300°C (e) and K saturation and heating at 550°C. Numerals above the diffraction peaks denote d spacings. Kα denote alpha line from K shell of copper.

Table 5 Clay mineralogical properties

Horizon	Smectite	Vermiculite	Illite	2:1–2:1:1	Chrolite	Kaolin minerals
Pedon 1
Oi
Oa
AB	-	-	-	++	+	+
Bw1	-	-	-	++	+	+
Bw2	-	-	-	++	-	+
Bw3	-	-	-	+	±	+
Pedon 2
Oi
Oa
AB	+	-	-	++	-	+
BE	++	-	-	++	-	±
Bw1	+	-	-	±	-	+
Bw2	±	-	-	+	-	+
2Bw3	+	-	-	±	-	-
2Bw4	+	-	-	±	-	-
Pedon 3
Oi
Oa
A	-	-	-	++	-	±
Bw1	-	-	-	++	-	+
2Bw2	-	-	-	±	-	+
2Bw3	-	-	-	±	-	+
3A2	-	-	-	-	-	+
Pedon 4
Oi
Oe
AE	+	-	-	+	-	+
AE/C	+	-	-	+	-	+
Bh	+	-	-	+	-	+
Bs	-	-	-	+	+	+
Bw	-	-	-	+	+	+
Pedon 5
Oi
Oa
A	±	+	-	-	-	±
Bw1	-	-	-	++	-	+
Bw2	-	-	-	+	-	+
2BC1	-	-	-	+	-	+
2BC2, BCR	-	-	-	+	-	+
Pedon 6
Oi
A	-	-	-	++	-	+
EB	+	-	-	++	-	+
Bs1	-	-	-	++	-	+
Bs2	-	-	-	+	-	+
Bw1	-	-	-	±	-	+
Bw2	-	-	-	±	-	+

-, not detected; ±, detected; +, detected clearly; ++, detected abundantly.

Table 6 Soil names according to three recent key-out systems

Pedon no.	CSCSJ^†	ST^‡	WRB^§
1	Low-humic Allophanic Andosol	Fulvudand	Silandic Fulvic Andosol (Dystric)
2	Low-humic Allophanic Andosol	Hapludand	Silandic Andosol (Dystric)
3	Haplic Non-allophanic Andosol	Hapludand	Silandic Andosol (Dystric)
4	Low-humic Allophanic Andosol	Hapludand	Silandic Andosol (Dystric)
5	Haplic Fulvic Andosol	Fulvudand	Silandic Fulvic Andosol (Dystric)
6	Haplic Fulvic Andosol	Fulvudand	Silandic Fulvic Andosol (Dystric)

^†Obara et al. (2011).

^‡Soil Survey Staff (2010).

§IUSS Working Group WRB (2007).

National Land Agency 1994: Soil map SEKIYAMATOGE.

 Google Scholar

Forest Soil Division 1976: Classification of forest soil in Japan (1975). Bull. Gov. for Exp. Sta., 280, 1–28. (In Japanese with English summary).

 Google Scholar

The Fourth Committee for Soil Classification and Nomenclature The Japanese Cociety of Pedology 2003: Unified Soil Classification System of Japan-2nd Approximation (2002), Hakuyusha, Tokyo. (in Japanese).

 Google Scholar

Obara H, Ohkura T, Takata Y, Kohyama K, Maejima Y, Hamazaki T 2011: Comprehensive Soil Classification System of Japan First Approximation. Reprinted Bull. Natl. Inst. Agro Environ. Sci., 29, 1–73. (in Japnaese with English summary).

 Google Scholar

Soil Survey staff 2010: Keys to Soil Taxonomy, (11th edition). U.S. Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington, DC.

 Google Scholar

International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) Working Group WRB 2007: World reference base for soil resources 2006, first update 2007. World Soil Resources Reports No. 103. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.

 Google Scholar