A disaggregated view of soft skills: Entrepreneurship education systems of Africa

Figures & data

Figure 1. Mediated entrepreneurship education (soft skills) and entrepreneurial readiness model.

Table 1. Construct reliability and convergent validity.

Indicator	Factor loadings	Variable/Construct	Cronbach’s alpha (α)	Average variance extracted
SS1	0.7872	Soft skills	0,9491	0,6220
SS2	0.8089
SS3	0.8176
SS4	0.7489
SS5	0.8217
SS6	0.7634
SS7	0.8127
SS8	0.8018
SS9	0.8456
SS10	0.8402
SS11	0.8088
SS12	0.6708
SS13	0.7046
OI1	0.7381	Opportunity identification	0.7362	0.5601
OI2	0.7930
OI3	0.7803
OI4	0.6767
OV1	0.7382	Opportunity validation	0.9396	0.6251
OV2	0.7308
OV3	0.8087
OV4	0.7443
OV5	0.7334
OV6	0.8083
OV7	0.8088
OV8	0.8437
OV9	0.8562
OV10	0.8243
OV11	0.7868
OE1	0.8142	Opportunity exploitation	0.8966	0.7090
OE2	0.7874
OE3	0.8893
OE4	0.9007
OE5	0.8122
VC1	0.7959	Venture creation	0.8116	0.6350
VC2	0.8056
VC3	0.8038
VC4	0.7819
IF1	0.7864	Innovative financing	0.8132	0.6411
IF2	0.8356
IF3	0.8014
IF4	0.7783
VG1	0.7819	Venture growth	0.8132	0.6247
VG2	0.8245
VG3	0.7451
VG4	0.8145

Table 2. Correlation.

Variables	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)
(1) Soft Skills	1.00
(2) Opp. Identification	.285**	1.00
(3) Opp. Validation	.212**	.534**	1.00
(4) Opp. Exploitation	.139*	.440**	.501**	1.00
(5) Res. Mobilization	.233**	.601**	.653**	.576**	1.00
(6) Venture Creation	.133*	.408**	.398**	.350**	.486**	1.00
(7) Innovative Financing	.332**	.512**	.532**	.534**	.594**	.420**	1.00
(8) Venture Growth	.189**	.440**	.477**	.584**	.571**	.539**	.553**	1.00
(9) Age	.037	.045	−.033	.031	.012	−.024	−.029	.079
(10) Gender	.095	.015	−.022	−.150**	.006	.096	−.039	−.040
(11) Education	−.055	.036	.065	.069	.020	−.001	.037	−.016
(12) Study Field	.008	−.042	−.104	−.101	−.115*	−.135*	−.134*	−.127*
(13) Intention	.085	.027	−.011	−.020	.041	−.136*	.044	−.034
(14) Equip.	.073	−.076	.003	−.003	−.029	−.012	.040	−.003
(15) Entr. Education	−.044	−.078	−.128*	−.225**	−.139*	−.153**	−.107	−.220**
(16) Highest Education	−.159**	−.024	.008	.089	−.041	.041	−.048	.065
Variables	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)	(13)	(14)	(15)	(16)
(9) Age	1.00
(10) Gender	−.078	1.00
(11) Education	−.345**	−.032	1.00
(12) Study Field	−.077	.126*	.033	1.00
(13) Intention	−.047	.145*	.138*	.126*	1.00
(14) Equip.	−.082	.053	.030	−.036	.181**	1.00
(15) Entr. Education	−.122*	.276**	.054	.306**	.233**	−.001	1.00
(16) Highest Education	.546**	−.128*	.045	−.148*	−.130*	−.083	−.216**	1.00

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 3. The effect of soft skills on mediators.

Variables	Opp. Identification		Opp. Validation		Opp. Exploitation
	Coeff.	SE	Coeff.	SE	Coeff.	SE
Age	.0928	.0991	−.0805	.1007	−.0223*	.0998
Gender	.0329	.1157	−.0065	.1175	−.2087	.1165
Education	.1087	.0833	.0828	.0846	.0962	.0839
Study Field	−.0194	.0317	−.0420	.0322	−.0176	.0319
Intention	.0316	.0716	−.0004	.0727	.0333	.0721
Equip.	−.1402*	.0766	−.0261	.0778	−.0179	.0771
Entr. Education	−.1414	.1249	−.1913	.1269	−.3549**	.1258
Highest Education	−.0223	.0364	.0198	.0370	.0324	.0367
Soft Skills	.2806***	.0577	.2224***	.0586	.1551**	.0581
Constant	.2151	.3620	.3754	.3678	.6210*	.3645
R^2	.1031		.0741		.0906
F	3.7032		2.5775		3.2100
df2	290		290		290

*P < .10, **P < .05, ***P < .001.

Table 4. Mediators—the effect of soft skills on entrepreneurial readiness.

Variable	Venture Creation				Innovative Financing				Venture Growth
	Model A.1		Model A.2		Model B.1		Model B.2		Model C.1		Model C.2
	Coeff.	SE	Coeff.	SE	Coeff.	SE.	Coeff.	SE	Coeff.	SE	Coeff.	SE
Age	−.1086	.1000	−.1143	.0896	−.0576	.0970	−.0522	.0776	.0497	.0999	.0594	.0804
Gender	.2967**	.1167	.3218**	.1049	−.0939	.1132	−.0356	.0908	.0183	.1166	.1011	.0942
Education	.0092	.0840	−.0468	.0752	.0534	.0815	−.0172	.0651	.0240	.0840	−.0459	.0675
Study Field	−.0529*	.0319	−.0381	.0286	−.0661**	.0310	−.0473*	.0247	−.0368	.0319	−.0194	.0256
Intention	−.1456**	.0722	−.1584**	.0644	.0518	.0701	.0351	.0558	.0079	.0722	−.0104	.0579
Equip.	−.0182	.0772	.0238	.0693	.0007	.0749	.0414	.0600	−.0216	.0772	.0107	.0622
Entr. Education	−.2515**	.1261	−.1290	.1139	−.1190	.1223	.0618	.0986	−.3725	.1260	−.1720*	.1023
Highest Education	.0341	.0368	.0313	.0329	−.0019	.0357	−.0115	.0285	.0114	.0367	−.0022	.0295
Soft Skills	.1396**	.0582	.0080	.0542	.3343***	.0565	.1784**	.0469	.1842**	.0582	.0409	.0486
Opp. Identification			.2474***	.0630			.2096***	.0546			.1449**	.0566
Opp. Validation			.1725*	.0639			.2235***	.0553			.1729***	.0573
Opp. Exploitation			.1536**	.0613			.3053***	.0531			.4141***	.0551
Constant	.3754	.3653	.1620	.3273	.4438	.3544	.1253	.2833	.5234	.3650	.1702	.2938
R^2	.0869		.2821		.1405		.4620		.0881		.4214
F	3.0670		9.3972		5.2653		20.5345		3.1126		17.4179
df	290		287		290		287		290		287

Table 5. Bootstrapping and Sobel’s test: The test of indirect effect—venture creation.

	Bootstrapping				Sobel’s test
	Effect	Boot SE	BootLLCI	BootULCI	Z	P
Opp. Identification	.0694	.0292	.0262	.1205	3.0164	.0026
Opp. Validation	.0384	.0213	.0081	.0765	2.1511	.0315
Opp. Exploitation	.0238	.0170	.0015	.0561	1.7622	.0780

Table 6. Bootstrapping and Sobel’s test: The test of indirect effect—innovative financing.

	Bootstrapping				Sobel’s test
	Effect	Boot SE	BootLLCI	BootULCI	Z	P
Opp. Identification	.0588	.0240	.0194	.0987	2.9758	.0029
Opp. Validation	.0497	.0256	.0134	.0964	2.7223	.0065
Opp. Exploitation	.0474	.0272	.0100	.0989	2.3916	.0168

Table 7. Bootstrapping and Sobel’s test: The test of indirect effect—venture growth.

	Bootstrapping				Sobel’s test
	Effect	Boot SE	BootLLCI	BootULCI	Z	P
Opp. Identification	.0407	.0243	.0012	.0815	2.2290	.0258
Opp. Validation	.0384	.0226	.0072	.0798	2.3115	.0208
Opp. Exploitation	.0642	.0313	.0149	.1179	2.4961	.0126

Table

Construct	Opportunity validation	Soft skills	Opportunity identification	Opportunity exploitation	Innovative financing	Venture creation	Venture growth	Resource mobilization
Opportunity validation	0.6251
Soft skills	0.0487	0.6220
Opportunity identification	0.2832	0.0838	0.5601
Opportunity exploitation	0.2534	0.0227	0.1920	0.7090
Innovative financing	0.2865	0.1140	0.2629	0.2897	0.6411
Venture creation	0.1736	0.0192	0.1785	0.1461	0.1907	0.6350
Venture growth	0.2394	0.0415	0.2040	0.3662	0.3165	0.826	0.6274
Resource mobilization	0.4263	0.0574	0.3591	0.3315	0.3548	0.2499	0.3423	0.6687

Squared correlations, AVE in the diagonal.

Table

Construct	Opportunity validation	Soft skills	Opportunity identification	Opportunity exploitation	Innovative financing	Venture creation	Venture growth	Resource mobilization
Opportunity validation
Soft skills	0.2243
Opportunity identification	0.6451	0.3417
Opportunity exploitation	0.5442	0.1525	0.5416
Innovative financing	0.6064	0.3780	0.6622	0.6275
Venture creation	0.4614	0.1572	0.5341	0.4195	0.5201
Venture growth	0.5485	0.2182	0.5780	0.6890	0.6834	0.6694
Resource mobilization	0.7369	0.2602	0.7662	0,6651	0.7217	0.5955	0.6986

Table

Soft Skills	Leadership—The ability to inspire and unlock the staff’s potential to fulfil the company vision.
	Creative thinking—The ability to incorporate new perspectives and different angles.
	Critical thinking—The analysis of facts to form a judgment.
	Emotional learning—An educational intervention to improve social and emotional skills.
	Communication—The ability to express and receive information.
	Teamwork—An integrating collaboration to achieve a common goal.
	Collaboration—The act of cooperation with different people.
	Initiative—The ability to decide and act independently to solve a problem.
	Adaptability—The capacity to adjust to new situations.
	Growth mindset—A belief in improving ability and intelligence through effort and learning.
	Self-confidence—The attitude where you trust and accept your abilities and skills.
	Cultural awareness—The sensitivity to accept different cultures.
	Empathy—The capability to share other persons’ feelings.
Opportunity Identification	Opportunity identification involves scanning the environment for information that enhances the business.
	Opportunity identification requires the ability to effectively use changing information from transformed external environments.
	Opportunity identification involves adapting an opportunity to suit the market need.
	Opportunity identification involves conducting systematic research to cultivate an idea to a high potential opportunity that transforms into marketable items.
Opportunity Validation	Opportunity validation involves establishing the competitive advantage/benefit of a product/service.
	Opportunity validation involves ascertaining the required customers of a product/service.
	Opportunity validation involves determining the size of market demand.
	Opportunity validation involves locating the target market.
	Opportunity validation involves determining the market share.
	Opportunity validation involves ascertaining the level of competition in the market.
	Opportunity validation involves determining the cost of product development.
	Opportunity validation involves comparing the prices of products/services with those of competitors.
	Opportunity validation involves determining the gross margins of the venture.
	Opportunity validation involves determining the capital required to create a new venture.
	Opportunity validation involves establishing the risks inherent with the product/service.
Opportunity Exploitation	Opportunity exploitation involves developing a good business plan.
	Opportunity exploitation involves the management of a venture successfully.
	Opportunity exploitation involves determining the required resources.
	Opportunity exploitation involves obtaining the appropriate resources.
	Opportunity exploitation involves dealing with competition.
Venture Creation	Venture creation involves establishing departments for a business.
	Venture creation involves filing for corporate tax.
	Venture creation involves establishing an office for operations.
	Venture creation involves marketing the operations of a business.
Innovative Financing	Innovative financing facilitates the flow of cash and finances.
	Innovative financing involves influencing productivity growth.
	Innovative financing involves human resources which increases the growth of new ventures.
	Innovative financing contributes to the increases in turnover.
Venture Growth	Venture growth involves firms’ use of technology adaption to change.
	Venture growth involves firms’ exploiting new products and markets to sustain strategic change.
	Venture growth involves using the venture’s internal systems to promote structural change.
	Venture growth involves using managerial processes that sustain organizational change.

Table

Variable	Venture Creation		Innovative Financing		Venture Growth
	VIF	Tolerance	VIF	Tolerance	VIF	Tolerance
Age	1.21	0.828	1.21	0.828	1.07	0.935
Gender	1.13	0.882	1.13	0.882	1.13	0.887
Education	1.29	0.776	1.29	0.776	1.23	0.815
Study Field	1.11	0.898	1.11	0.898	1.09	0.917
Intention	1.12	0.890	1.12	0.890	1.10	0.913
Equip.	1.13	0.888	1.13	0.888	1.11	0.902
Entr. Education	1.28	0.782	1.28	0.782	1.24	0.804
Highest Education	1.11	0.898	1.11	0.898	1.08	0.928
Soft Skills	1.10	0.910	1.10	0.910	1.10	0.910