Shamanism at the transition from foraging to farming in Southwest Asia: sacra, ritual, and performance at Neolithic WF16 (southern Jordan)

Figures & data

Figure 1 WF16 in southern Jordan: looking west along Wadi Faynan to the Wadi Araba, with the site of WF16 under excavation in April 2010 (photo: S. Mithen).

Figure 2 W16 showing cluster of semi-subterranean structures undergoing excavation in April 2010, labelling those referred to in the text (photo: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 3 Site plan of WF16 following 2010 excavation (drawing: D. Maričević).

Figure 4 Key birds exploited at WF16 and referred to in the text: (a) Steppe Buzzard (photo: F. Khoury); (b) Steppe Eagle (photo: F. Khoury); (c) Northern Bald Ibis (photo: Charles J. Sharp at Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4-0 EDIT); (d) Litte Egret (photo: Bengt Nyman via Flickr CC By 2-0300).

Figure 5 ‘Burial’ of Little Egret in Structure O66 (photos: J. White, S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 6 Structure O56, showing the workbench with drilled holes and coarse stone artefacts (photo: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 7 Fragments of shamans’ staffs? (a) WF16 SF1366; (b) SF531 (photos: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 8 Structure O33 showing backfill over the floor on which artefact SF531 was found, as inset (photos: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 9 Possible tutelary creatures from WF16, carved in stone (a) SF1155; (b) SF2193; (c) SF1298; (d) SF2078, mud-clay; (e) SF155 (photos: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 10 A double-faced head, carved in stone SF238 (photos: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 11 Phalli from WF16 (a) SF339, bone (b) SF2389, stone with red ochre; (c) SF1005, stone; (d) SF1006, stone (photos: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson; drawing: S. Lamb).

Figure 12 Possible shamanic charms from WF16 (a) SF82; (b) SF2177; (c) SF853; (d) SF2390; (e) SF1564; (f) SF332; (g) SF711; (h) SF1356 (photos: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 13 (a) Ibex/wild goat horn core embedded into the pisé wall of Structure O56; (b) fox skull within post-pipe in Structure O75 (photos: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 14 Structure O75, with later Phase 3 Structure O100 in the foreground (photos: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 15 Reconstruction drawing of Structure 075 (drawing: D. Maričević).

Figure 16 The north-west end of Structure O75 showing cup-hole mortars and hearths (drawing: D. Maričević; photos: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 17 Capra horn cores within features at WF16 (a) with a hearth (762) constructed in the floor of Structure O75; (b) within the trough in the floor of Structure O75; (c) within a pit adjacent to hearths in a mud-clay surface constructed over the floor of Structure O75, prior to the formation of the midden (photos: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 18 Structure O45 under excavation in 2010 (photo: S. Mithen and B. Finlayson).

Figure 19 Reconstruction drawing of Structure O45 (drawing: D. Maričević).

Figure 20 (a) Reconstruction of Structure of O45 (photo: B. Finlayson); (b) Structure O12, showing intrusions into mud pisé that may have been used for a ladder.

Table 1 Summary of possible interpretations and additional/alternative shamanic interpretations of selected artefacts and architecture from WF16

Archaeological finds	Possible interpretations	Additional/alternative shamanic interpretation	Case for shamanic interpretation
Bird bones (Figs 4 and 5)	Birds as a source of food Skins, sinews, feathers and bones as materials for clothing and tool making Feathers for fletching arrows	Feathers and skins for shamanic costumes and paraphernalia	Quantity, range and diversity of taxa represented Striking plumage of some taxa Discard patterns contrast with those of mammal bones and tool making debris, including possible burial of a Little Egret Cut marks and extent of burning are not commensurate with use of food alone Location of WF16 below migratory flyway
Polished bone point with rounded tip: SF1366 (Fig. 7a) Polished ‘baton’ in white/grey stone with sharp tip and flaked base: SF531 (Figs 7b and 8)	Spear points Tools for working hides and wood Status symbols	Fragments from shaman staffs	Lack of comparable artefacts Highly polished surfaces with no evident wear traces Investment in manufacture Context of discard
Zoomorphic figures: SF1365 (exposed ribs), SF2193, SF1298 (snakes) SF2078 (snake), SF1155 (ibex/wild goat) (Fig. 9)	Toys Decorative ornaments Totemic symbols	Representations of tutelary creatures used in shamanic ritual	Ethnographic analogy for the figure with exposed ribs for SF1365 Role of snakes in shamanic thought and actions Unpersuasive case for use of these as toys, decorative ornaments or totemic symbols
Two-sided stone face: SF238 (Fig. 10)	Decorative ornament	Item of sacra used in shamanic activity	Depiction of human faces within shamanic paraphernalia
Phalli: SF339, SF1005, SF2389, SF1056 (Fig. 11)	Sex toys Symbols of masculinity	Item of sacra used in shamanic activity to facilitate engagement with spirit animals	Ethnographic accounts of sex and eroticism in shamanic activity
Engraved/incised stone and bone plaques: e.g., SF82, SF853, SF2390, SF1564, SF332 (Fig. 12) Carvings of ambiguous form, possibly zoomorphic: SF711, SF1356 (Fig. 12)	Decorative items for clothing and body ornamentation Mnemonic devices Gifts for forming friendships and alliances Parts of multicomponent tools or structures	Item of sacra used in shamanic activity	Some of the ‘geometric’ imagery might be depiction of tracks and journeys as found in ethnographically documented shamanic art Small size of objects suggesting private rather than public use
Horncore embedded in wall of Structure O56 (Fig. 13) Fox skull in post-pipe of Structure O75 (Fig. 13)	To provide structural support for the pies Discard of faunal remains	Items of sacra to represent the ‘hidden’ spirit world	Pisé walls would not have required structural support from fauna material Horncore and fox skull would not have been as well preserved if they are been simply discarded into construction material Scarcity of horncores and fox skulls at WF16
O75 — the amphitheatre-like structure (Figs 14–17)	A longhouse, similar to those found in Amazonia A communal work area	An arena used for shamanic performance, most likely related to healing	Architecture that suggests benches for watching performance Possible sacra recovered for floor deposits Central trough as access to underworld Cup-holed mortars as locations for preparation of pigments and narcotic substances Traces of fire, hearths and deposition of horncores
O45, O56 and other small, circular semi-subterranean structure (Figs 2, 6, 18–20)	Structures for domestic and private activities	Structures for storing sacra and private shamanic ritual	Semi-subterranean structures represent access into underworld Absence of hearth and presence of possible sacra in O45, including pierced human skull, phalli and tortoise carapace Wall niches providing storage for sacra High densities of bird bones in O56 and O45 Burning down of O45

Figure 21 Summary of proposed shamanic activities at WF16.