Burning Matters: The Rise and Fall of an Early-Medieval Fortified Centre. A New Chronology for Clatchard Craig

Figures & data

Fig 1 Location map and distribution of forts in vicinity of Clatchard Craig. 1. Clatchard Craig; 2. Black Cairn; 3. Braeside Mains; 4. Glenduckie; 5. Norman’s Law; 6. Green Craig. Contains OS data © Crown Copyright/database 2020. An Ordnance Survey/EDINA supplied service).

Fig 2 The 1980s plan of the site (reproduced by kind permission of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland). The letters and shaded boxes refer to the excavation areas.

Fig 3 Aerial image from 1960 looking east showing excavations and quarrying in progress with over 50% of the site destroyed. © Historic Environment Scotland 1902264.

Fig 4 Hearth of the structure within the upper citadel and Rampart 1 under excavation 1959. Hearth is bottom right next to the standing excavator. Photographer was standing to the north looking south. © Historic Environment Scotland 1902341.

Fig 5 Plan of the structure found in the interior of the upper citadel. Reproduced by kind permission of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.

Fig 6 Two of the triangular terminal moulds from Clatchard Craig. © Historic Environment Scotland SC 50380.

Fig 7 Schematic illustration of the original phasing of the site.

© authors.

Table 1 Radiocarbon determinations from Clatchard Craig, Fife.

Lab no	Material	Trench/level	Context	Radiocarbon age (BP)	(‰)	Calibrated date (95% confidence)	Calibrated date (68% confidence)	Stratigraphy/notes
Rampart 1
SUERC-82047	Animal Bone: Mammal Shaft Fragment (Calcined)	Trench B, Level 6	Animal bone from core of Rampart 1	2583 ± 26	−21.0	810–590 cal bc	800–770 cal BC	Residual — Iron Age. Not included in modelling
GU-1794	Charcoal: Quercus sp.	Trench B, Level 6	Radially split timber from core of Rampart 1	1560 ± 55	−24.4	cal ad 400–640	cal ad 430–570	Old wood effect. Removed from modelling
SUERC-82048	Animal Bone: Cattle Radius Proximal	Trench B, Level 7	Animal bone from layer below core of Rampart 1	1452 ± 26	−22.3	cal ad 570–650	cal ad 600–650	Earlier than GU-1794, GU-1795, SUERC-82047, SUERC-82046
GU-1795	Charcoal: Quercus sp.	Trench B, Level 6	Large fragments of radially split timber from core of Rampart 1; Bulk sample	1350 ± 75	−25.5	cal ad 550–880	cal ad 600–780
SUERC-82046	Animal Bone: Cattle Humerus Distal	Trench B, Level 3	Animal bone from layer above core of Rampart 1	1347 ± 26	−22.1	cal ad 640–780	cal ad 650–760	Later than GU-1794, GU-1795, SUERC-82047
Rampart 2
GU-1796	Charcoal: Quercus sp.	Trench A, Level 7	Fragments of oak timber c.40 mm thick from core of Rampart 2	1475 ± 55	−23.8	cal ad 430–660	cal ad 560–650
SUERC-82054	Animal Bone: Pig Scapula	Trench A, Level 7	Animal bone from core of Rampart 2	1456 ± 26	−21.9	cal ad 570–650	cal ad 590–650
SUERC-82055	Animal Bone: Cattle Rib Shaft	Trench A, Level 9	Animal bone from below core of Rampart 2	1427 ± 26	−21.8	cal ad 590–660	cal ad 600–650	Earlier than SUERC-82054, GU-1796, SUERC-82053
SUERC-82053	Animal Bone: Cattle Metapodial Shaft (Metatarsal?)	Trench A, Level 6	Animal bone from core or Rampart 2	1426 ± 26	−22.1	cal ad 590–660	cal ad 600–650	Should be earlier or same as GU-1796
SUERC-82052	Animal Bone: Large Mammal Vertebral Fragment	Trench A, Level 5	Animal bone from above core of rampart	1396 ± 26	−22.3	cal ad 600–670	cal ad 600–660	Later than SUERC-82053; SUERC-82055; GU-1796
Rampart 3
GU-1797	Charcoal: Alnus glutinosa; Quercus sp.	Trench D, Level 3	Fragments of alder and oak roundwood, each c.60 mm diameter from core of Rampart 3	1470 ± 60	−25.9	cal ad 430–670	cal ad 560–650
GU-1798	Charcoal: Quercus sp.	Trench H, Level 27	Oak roundwood from core of Rampart 3	1400 ± 55	−24.4	cal ad 550–780	cal ad 590–670	Should be earlier or same as GU-1797
	Animal Bone: Large Mammal Shaft Fragment	Trench C, Level 6		Failed
	Animal Bone: Large Mammal Vertebral Fragment	Trench C, Level 6		Failed
Interior occupation
SUERC-87107	Animal Bone: Pig Tibia	Trench F/FF, Level F5	‘Occupation’ layer above hearth	1603 ± 24	−22.0	cal ad 410–540	cal ad 420–540	Residual, not included in modelling
SUERC-82057	Animal Bone: Cattle Metatarsal Proximal	Trench F/FF Level F3 and FF4	Floor layer of structure	1435 ± 26	−22.4	cal ad 570–660	cal ad 600–650
SUERC-87106	Animal Bone: Pig Mandible	Trench F/FF, Level F5	‘Occupation’ layer above hearth	1388 ± 26	−22.5	cal ad 600–670	cal ad 610–670	Later than SUERC-82057
	Animal Bone: Large Mammal Shaft Fragment	Trench F/FF, Level F5		Failed
	Animal Bone: Medium Mammal Vertebral Body	Trench F/FF, Level F5		Failed

Fig 8 Radiocarbon model outlining the dates for Ramparts 1–3 and occupation in the upper citadel. Produced using Oxcal v4.4.2.

Fig 9 Likely span of activity at Clatchard Craig. Produced using Oxcal v4.4.2.

Fig 10 Cross-referenced posterior density estimates from the model shown in Fig 10 are presented here with the label preceded by the equals sign (=). These have been used within OxCal to calculate the earliest probability density estimate for the group (First start: Clatchard Craig) that is a refined date estimate for the beginning of the enclosed site activity. Produced using Oxcal v4.4.2.

Fig 11 Redrawn sections from Ramparts 1 and 2 showing the stratigraphic sequence and the contexts of the new dates. After Close-Brooks 1986, Illus 7, 15.

Fig 12 New phasing of ramparts at Clatchard Craig. © authors.

Fig 13 Sites with confirmed or likely Pictish enclosure phases (500–900 AD). (Major hilltop forts with confirmed multivallate defences in bold): 1. Urquhart Castle, Highland (radiocarbon); 2. Craig Phadrig, Highland (radiocarbon); 3. Doune of Relugas, Moray (radiocarbon); 4. Burghead, Moray (radiocarbon; sculpture); 5. Knock of Alves, Moray (radiocarbon); 6. Green Castle, Portknockie, Moray (radiocarbon); 7. Cullykhan, Aberdeenshire (radiocarbon); 8. Tap o’ Noth, Aberdeenshire (radiocarbon); 9. Cairnmore, Aberdeenshire (radiocarbon); 10. Rhynie, Aberdeenshire (radiocarbon; finds; sculpture); 11. Maiden Castle, Aberdeenshire (radiocarbon; finds); 12. Mither Tap o’ Bennachie, Aberdeenshire (radiocarbon); 13. Dunnottar, Aberdeenshire (referenced – 7^th and 9^th C AD). 14. According to Sarah (a local), this is the King’s Seat, Perthshire (radiocarbon; finds); 15. Dundurn, Perthshire (referenced — 7th and 9th C AD; radiocarbon); 16. Rathinveramon? Perthshire (referenced — 9th C AD); 17. Clatchard Craig, Fife (radiocarbon); 18. East Lomond, Fife (radiocarbon; sculpture); 19. Abbey Craig, Stirlingshire (radiocarbon); 20. Giudi? Stirling (referenced — 8th C AD).

Table 2 Multivallate early medieval forts from northern Britain with more than five dates from ramparts and occupation.

Hillfort	Documented	No of radiocarbon dates	Start 95% cal AD	Start 68% cal AD	End 95%	End 68%	Span 95%	Span 68%
Abbey Craig	No	5	360–770	540–750	720–1120	730–950	0–685	0–395
Clatchard Craig	No	13	580–650	590–630	610–690	640–670	0–85	20–70
Dundurn	7th and 9th century AD	6	370–670	520–660	650–1000	650–840	0–575	0–330
Dunollie	7th and 8th century AD	6	310–1010	500–815	770–1280	800–1000	0–895	0–581
Dunadd*	7th and 8th century AD	14	180–530	290–470	910–1370	1040–1200	520–1100	620–890
Mither Tap o’ Bennachie	10th century AD?	9	600–760	630–680	690–810	710–780	0–175	45–145
Trusty’s Hill	No	6	375–580	475–560	545–710	560–630	1–295	1–140

Based on Bayesian models of all 1st millennium ad radiocarbon dates from each site with the dates modelled as a single group. The ranges for many of these sites are wide reflecting longevity of use, but also lack of precision in the original dating in some cases. *Dunadd: only Phase IIB-II dates have been included.

Table 3 List of sites in Scotland recorded in the Irish annals as being burned, destroyed, captured, constructed, under siege, or otherwise mentioned.

Date (ad)	Source	Text
Ca 640	AU 638.1	obsesio Etin, ‘Siege of *Etin [Edinburgh] (also AT kl 141.1; CS 637.1)
Ca 642	AU 641.5	obsesio Rithę, ‘Siege of *Rithę’
672	? AU 673.3	Gabail Eliuin m. Cuirp, ‘The taking of Eilén of Mac/mac Cuirp [or mac Uirp or moccu [U]irp]’, cf AU 742.10. See Charles-Edwards 2006, I, 159, n7, for the view that this is a place in Scotland.
679	AU 680.5	Obsesio Duin Baitte, ‘Siege of Dún Baitte’
680	AU 681.5	Obsessio Duin Foither, ‘Siege of Dún Foither [Dunottar]
682	AU 683.3	Obsesio Duin Att 7 obsessio Dúin Duirn, ‘Siege of Dún Att [Dunadd] and a siege of Dún Duirn’ [Dundurn]
685	AU 686.1: 7	combusit tula aman Duin Ollaigh, ‘he burned tula aman of(?) Dún Ollaigh’ [Dunollie]
691	AU 692.6	Obsesio Duin Deauę Dibsi, ‘Siege of Dún Deauę Dibsi’
693	AU 694.4	Obsesio Duin Fother, ‘Siege of Dún Fother’ [Dunottar]
698/699	AU 698.3	Combusti[o] Duin Onlaigh, ‘Burning of Dún Onlaigh’ [Dunollie]
701/702	AU 701.8	Distructio Duin Onlaigh apud Sealbach, ‘Destruction of Dún Onlaigh by Selbach’ [Dunollie]
704	AU 703.4	Ailén Daingen ędifiacatur, ‘Ailen Daingen is built’ (also AT kl 203.4.), cf AU 714.3
704	AU 703.6	Obsesio Rithe, ‘Siege of *Rithe’ (cf AU 641.5)
712	AU 712.2	Combustio Tairpirt Boitter, ‘Burning of Tairpert Boitter’ [Tarbert in Kintyre?] cf AU 731.4
712	AU 712.5	Obsessio Aberte apud Selbachum, ‘The Siege of *Aberte by Selbach’ [Dunaverty, Kintyre?]. (Bannerman 1974, 16; Fraser 2009, 273; but Charles-Edwards 2006, vol. I, 186, n. 1, is more cautious).
714	AU 714.2	Dún Ollaigh construitur apud Selbachum, ‘Dunollie is constructed by Selbach’ [Dunollie]; also AT kl 214.2
714	AU 714.3	Alen Daingen distruitur, ‘Ailen Daingen is destroyed’, cf 703; also AT kl 214.3. Cf AU 703.4.
725	AU 725.2	Ailen mac Craich construitur, ‘Ailen mac Craich is constructed’; also AT kl 225.2. (Bannerman 1974, 16, identifies this with Creic in AU 736.1, but this seems unlikely. Charles-Edwards 2006, vol I, 198, translates this as ‘Ailén of the son of Crach is constructed’, and at ibid., n.1, he states that the final –ch may represent a Gaelicised form of a Pictish or British name).
728	AU 728.4	(Battle among the Picts) iuxta Castellum Credi, ‘near/at Castellum Credi’, [‘the castle of belief’, possibly at or near Scone]. AT kl 228.5 has Caislen Credhi, with castellum translated as caisel. (Fraser, 2009, 288, suggests this may be the same place as the collis credulitatis, ‘hill of confidence’ of Scone mentioned in the ‘Chronicle of the Kings of Alba’ for a meeting of the king and Church in the reign of Constantín mac Áeda (900-43)).
731	AU 731.4	Combustio Tairpirt Boittir apud Dunghal, ‘Burning of Tairpert Boittir by Dúngal [Tairpert Boittir]. Cf AU 712.2]
734	AU 734.6	Talorrggan filius Drostain conprehensus alligatur iuxta Arcem Ollaigh. ‘Talorgan son of Drostan is apprehended and manacled near/at the fort of Ollaigh’ [Dún Ollaig, ie Dunollie]
734	AU 734.7	Dún Leithfinn distruitur post vulnerationem Dungaile 7 in Hiberniam a potestate Oengusso fugatus est, ‘Dún Leithfinn is destroyed after the wounding of Dúngal [son of Selbach of Cenél Loairn] and he fled to Ireland from the power of Óengus’ [i.e. Onuist son of Uurguist, King of the Picts].
736	AU 736.1	[Onuist son of Uurguist ravages Dál Riata], obtenuit Dun At, 7 combussit Creic, ‘captures Dún Att [Dunadd] and burns *Creic’ (also AT kl 236.1).
742	AU 742.10	Obsesio Auiliuin filii Cruip, ‘Siege of *Auiliuin filii Cruip’. Cf AU 673.3.
780	AU 780.1	(AU text: Combustio Alo Cluadhe in Kl. Ianair, ‘The burning of Ail Cluaidhe on the Kalends [1st] of January’ [Dumbarton Rock].
870	AU 870.6	Obsesio Ailech Cluathe a Norddmannis, .i. Amlaiph & Imhar, duo reges Norddmannorum obsederunt arcem illum & distruxerunt in fine .iiii. mensium arcem & predauerunt. ‘The siege of Ail Cluaithe [Dumbarton Rock] by the Northmen, that is Amlaíb and Ímarr, two kings of the Northmen. The besieged that stronghold and destroyed the stronghold at the end of four months, and they plundered.’ (Translated by Nicholas Evans).

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