The Evolution of Maps Produced by Adam Gilg Between 1688–93: A Case-Study on the Production and Circulation of Jesuit Geographical Knowledge of Sonora

Abstract

The article investigates the progress in the geographical knowledge of Sonora based on explorations by Adam Gilg, a Moravian Jesuit in Spanish service. Gilg spent eighteen years (1688–1710) at the northern frontier of New Spain, where he worked as a missionary among the Seri (Comcáac) and Pima (O’odham) peoples. In the period between 1688 and 1693, Gilg drafted three maps of Sonora that represent three stages in proselytization efforts and European geographical knowledge of Sonora. The comparative analysis of these maps makes an interesting case study of how a map, once compiled, was updated and corrected in accordance with new data subsequently collected. It also illustrates the interaction and knowledge exchange between Jesuits serving in the region (Eusebio Kino, Marcus Kappus) and the local Native Nations, the Seris and the Pimas.

El artículo investiga los avances en el conocimiento geográfico de Sonora a partir de las exploraciones de Adam Gilg, un jesuita moravo al servicio de España. Gilg pasó dieciocho años (1688-1710) en la frontera norte de Nueva España, donde trabajó como misionero entre los pueblos Seri (Comcáac) y Pima (O’odham). En el período comprendido entre 1688 y 1693, Gilg trazó tres mapas de Sonora que representan tres etapas en los esfuerzos de proselitismo y conocimiento geográfico europeo de Sonora. El análisis comparativo de estos mapas constituye un interesante estudio de caso sobre cómo un mapa, una vez compilado, fue actualizado y corregido de acuerdo con los nuevos datos recopilados posteriormente. También ilustra la interacción y el intercambio de conocimientos entre los jesuitas que sirven en la región (Eusebio Kino, Marcus Kappus) y las naciones nativas locales, los Seris y los Pimas.

KEYWORDS:

• Adam Gilg
• Sonora
• Pimería
• Seris (Comcáac)
• Pimas (O’odham)
• northern Spanish frontier
• Jesuit missions

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

¹ Charles W. Polzer and Thomas E. Sheridan. The Presidio and Militia on the Northern Frontier of New Spain: A Documentary History. Volume Two, Part One: The Californias and Sinaloa-Sonora, 1700–1765. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1997, 253–254.

² Pimería was not a political entity, but part of the Sinaloa y Sonora province. The Pimería Baja and Alta were designations mostly used by the Catholic Church and Spanish administration to make a geographical distinction between the regions where different dialects of the Pima language were spoken. The Pimería Alta was usually described as bounded by the Gila River to the north, the Colorado River to the west, and the Altar River to the south, while the Pimería Baja stretched southward of the Altar River all the way to Sinaloa. Thomas E. Sheridan, ed. Empire of Sand: The Seri Indians and the Struggle for Spanish Sonora, 1645–1803. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999, 122.

³ John J. Martinez, Not Counting the Cost: Jesuit Missionaries in Colonial Mexico – A Story of Struggle, Commitment and Sacrifice. Chicago: Loyola Press, 2001, 93–105, 143–152.

⁴ For more broad insight into the northern Spanish borderland see, Brandon Bayne, Missions begin in Blood: Suffering and Salvation in the Borderlands of New Spain. New York: Fordham University Press, 2022; Cynthia Radding, Wandering Peoples. Colonialism, Ethnic Spaces, and Ecological Frontiers in Northwestern Mexico. Durham: Duke University Press, 1997.

⁵ The Jesuit scholars Herbert Eugene Bolton and Ernest J. Burrus both published extensive studies on Kino’s work. Bolton published Kino’s biography and diary, see Herbert Eugene Bolton, Kino’s Historical Memoir of Pimería Alta: A Contemporary Account of the Beginnings of California, Sonora, and Arizona. Translated, edited, and annotated by Herbert Eugene Bolton. Cleveland, OH: Arthur H. Clark, 1919; Herbert Eugene Bolton, The Padre on Horseback. A Sketch of Eusebio Francisco Kino S. J. Apostle to the Pimas. San Francisco: Sonora Press, 1932; Hebert Eugene Bolton, Rim of Christendom: A Biography of Eusebio Francisco Kino, Pacific Coast Pioneer. New York: Russell & Russell, 1960. Burrus focused on Kino’s explorations and mapping, see, Ernest J. Burrus, Kino and the Cartography of Northwestern New Spain. Tucson: Arizona Pioneers’ Historical Society, 1965. The publication of the diary of Kino’s companion Juan Mateo Manje is also important for the valorization of Kino’s work, see Juan Mateo Manje, Luz de Tierra Incógnita: Unknown Arizona and Sonora, 1693–1721. Edited and translated by Harry J. Karns. Tucson: Arizona Silhouettes, 1954. For a new approach to Kino’s cartography see, José Refugio de la Torre Curiel, “Tierra Incógnita: Cartography and Projects of Territorial Expansion in Sonora and Arizona, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” In The Oxford Handbook of the Borderlands of the Iberian World, edited by Danna A. Levin Rojo and Cynthia Radding. New York: Oxford University Press, 2019, 463–489.

⁶ Delineavit hanc Geographicam Mappam & Anno 1692, Mense Februario, in Provinciam Bohemiae transmisit, P. Adamus Gilg, Societ[atis] JESU Missionarius, inter Seros. Manuscript map; 30 cm height x 21 cm width. Attached to Gilg’s account of February 1692, sent to the Rector of the Jesuit college at Brun (Brno), Moravia, ARSI, Boh. 108, ff. 3–11.

⁷ To substitute Gilg’s missing map, the editor decided to accompany Gilg’s letter with Eusebio Kino’s map from 1702. Joseph Stöcklein, Der Neue Welt-Bott, I (1726), Letter 53, 75–81. Note on the map is on p. 79. Stöcklein published another Gilg’s letter from 8 October 1687, see Der Neue Welt-Bott, I (1726), Letter 33, 107–110. Both letters were first published in English in The Woodstock Letters, vol. 45/1 (1916), 51–72.

⁸ Francisco Javier Alegre, Historia de la Provincia de la Compagñia de Jesús de Nueva España, 4 vols. Edited by Ernest J. Burrus and Félix Zbillaga. Rome: Institutum Historicum S.J., 1956–1960, 155–157. The map appears in volume IV, inserted between pp. 144 and 145.

⁹ Charles D. Di Peso and Daniel S. Matson, “The Seri Indians in 1692 as described by Adamo Gilg, S.J.” Arizona and the West 7/1 (1965): 33–56.

¹⁰ Ernest Burrus, La obra cartográfica de la Provincia Mexicana de la Compañía de Jesus (1567–1967). Madrid: Ediciones Jose Porrua Turanzas, 1967, vol. I; 29–30, vol. II: map no. 17.

¹¹ Mission del Rectorado de S. Franciso Xavier. Manuscript map; 43 cm height × 31 cm width. Attached to a letter Mission o Rectorado de N.P. San Francisco Xavier en la Provincia de Sonora: San Miguel de los Ures, [Sonora, Mexico], a 28 de Diciembre 1693, Antonio de Rojas. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, BANC 2007/3.2.

¹² Gil Juan-Osle, “Early Mapmaking of the Pimería Alta in Arizona and Sonora (1597–1770): A Transborder Case.” Study Journal of the Southwest 63/1 (2021): 51–52.

¹³ Mirela Altic, Encounters in the New World: Jesuit Cartography of the Americas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2022, 93–98, 342–343.

¹⁴ Missiones de S. Francisco Xavier en Sonora. Manuscript; 42.8 cm height × 30.7 cm width. Denver Public Library CG4471.E424. 1688.G56. The map is enclosed to a letter by Alonso de Leon, dated 19 May 1689. For the letter see, University of Texas at Arlington, Special Collections.

¹⁵ Along with Bohemia and Silesia, Moravia was part of the Bohemian province, which was set up in 1623, as part of the German assistancy. This particular assistancy included not only the provinces of the German-speaking countries, but also the English, Flemish and Belgian, Polish, Bohemian, and Hungarian provinces. For more on the Bohemian province see, Otokar Odložilík, “Czech Missionaries in New Spain.” The Hispanic American Historical Review 25/4 (1945): 428–454.

¹⁶ Francisco Zambrano and José Gutiérrez Casillas, Diccionario Bio-Bibliográfico dela Compañia de Jesús en México, 16 vols. Mexico: Editorial Jus, 1961–1977: XV, 676–677; Albrecht Classen, Early History of the Southwest Through the Eyes of German-speaking Jesuit Missionaries: A Transcultural Experience in the Eighteenth Century. Lanham, Md: Lexington Books, 2013, 35–36.

¹⁷ A letter from Father Adam Gilg written on 8 October 1687 at Mexico City. Incorporated is a letter by Father Eusebio Kino dated 13 May 1687. The Woodstock Letters, vol. 45/1(1916), 51–58. Also published in Stöcklein, Der Neue Welt-Bott, I (1726), Letter 33, 107–110.

¹⁸ The Tepocas were the northernmost Seri group. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 30.

¹⁹ Di Peso and Matson. “The Seri Indians in 1692,” 45–46.

²⁰ Zambrano and Gutiérrez Casillas, Diccionario Bio-Bibliográfico, XV, 676.

²¹ See, Kino’s maps Delineación de la Nueva Provincia de S[an] Andrés, del Puerto de la Paz and Description de la fortificación y R[ea]l de S[an] Bruno de Californias, both drafted in 1683. According to Kino’s extant letters, in 1683, he also made two maps of Lower California; one he sent to the Duchess of Aveiro, and the other to Father Francisco de Castro. Also, he made a chart of Port San Lucas (Sinaloa), which he sent to Scherer. Burrus, Kino and the Cartography, 20.

²² See, Delineatio Nova et Vera Partis Australis Novi Mexici, cum Australi Parte Insulae Californiae Saeculo Priori ab Hispanis Detectae (Munich, 1703). The original of Kino’s 1685 map is not preserved, but it is known from the correspondence with Scherer to whom Kino sent a copy. In 1703, Scherer produced a printed map of Baja California and part of Sonora based on information provided by Kino in 1685. Yet, it should be stated that Scherer, who published the map only in 1703, possibly updated Kino’s original 1685 map with some additional data, so it is hard to tell what was really noted in 1685, and what was updated based on other sources. Nonetheless, the coverage of Scherer’s edition of the map coincides with the region that was traveled by Kino, and does not include any missions established after 1685, which speaks in favor of its authenticity.

²³ Kino traveled and explored the following regions extensively: Tumacácori, 1691; the Altar River, 1692; Caborca and the Sonoran coast, 1694; the Gila River to Casa Grande, 1695; Baja California, 1697; the Santa María and San Pedro Rivers, 1698; the Gulf of California from the north to the Colorado River, 1700; a repeat trip and crossing of the Colorado River on a raft, 1701; a repeat trip and proof that Baja California was not an island, 1702; Guaymas, 1704; the Isla Tiburón, 1706; and Pinacate and Santa Clara, 1706.

²⁴ It is known that, at their meeting, Gilg delivered to Kino a package of letters from Freiburg. Bolton, Rim of Christendom, 254.

²⁵ Gilg exchanged at least four letters with Kino (in April 1700, December 1701, October 1704, and December 1706). Bolton, Kino’s Historic memoir, I: 216, 232, 259, 324, II: 84, 105–106. Yet, their further contacts are evidenced in the letters by other missionaries and officers from the region.

²⁶ The Salineros occupied the central part of the Seri region from west of the San Miguel River to the Canal de Infiernillo that separates the Sonoran mainland from the Isla Tiburón. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 30.

²⁷ Bolton, Kino’s Historic memoir, I:211.

²⁸ Bolton, Kino’s Historic memoir, I:193–199, II, 211. Di Peso and Matson. “The Seri Indians in 1692,” 37.

²⁹ Gilg’s letter to Kino from April and December 1700. Bolton, Kino’s Historic memoir, I:232, 259, 324. Located along the Santa Cruz River, Bac was an important community of O’odham (Pimas). Kino first baptized Upper Pimas there in 1692 and founded the mission of San Xavier del Bac in 1700. The mission was only sporadically staffed by Jesuits and often abandoned because of Apache attacks. The mission became sustainable only with the arrival of Father José Torres Perea in 1740.

³⁰ Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 74.

³¹ Bolton, Kino’s Historic memoir, II, 93–94.

³² Gerard Decorme, S.J. La obra de los jesuitas mexicanos durante la época colonial, 1572–1767. Mexico City: Antigua Librería Robredo de José Porrúa e Hijos, 1941, II, 544, note 4.

³³ Bolton, Kino’s Historic memoir, II, 216.

³⁴ E.g., see map Audience de Guadalajara, Nouveau Mexique, Californie, &c., prepared by Nicolas Sanson (Paris, 1657), which contains some of the rivers and names of the Native Nations of the northern Sonora-Sinaloa borderlands and the Tarahumara province.

³⁵ The map was not provided with an original title. Manuscript in color; 25.5 cm height × 37.5 cm width. It is attached to Cabero’s report. ARSI, Pr. Mex. 5 f. 104 (olim Hist. Soc. 246). For a translation of the whole Cabero’s report, see Burrus, Kino and the Cartography, 34–37.

³⁶ For more on the map see, Altic, Encounters, 88–89.

³⁷ Martinez, Not Counting the Cost, 100–105.

³⁸ When in 1662, the shortage of missionaries became critical, Spain decided to change its policy, permitting that one-third of the missionaries could be recruited from non-Spanish countries. As a result, a significant number of missionaries from Central Europe appeared in the Jesuit missions in Americas. For more on the topic see3, Bernd Hausberger, Jesuiten aus Mitteleuropa im kolonialen Mexiko: Eine Bio-Bibliographie (Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur der Iberischen und Iberoamerikanischen Länder). Wien: Böchlau, 1995.

³⁹ Gil-Osle, “Early Mapmaking of the Pimería Alta,” 50–51.

⁴⁰ Harry W. Crosby, Antiqua California: Mission and Colony on the Peninsular Frontier, 1697–1768. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994, 146.

⁴¹ Radding, Wandering Peoples, 49.

⁴² Eusebio Kino used Adam Aigenler’s Tabula Geographico-Horologa Universalis (Ingolstadt, Ioannis Ostermayr, 1668), which included Riccioli’s tables of latitude and longitude as well as corrections of magnetic declination. It is highly possible that Gilg used the same tables for his calculations.

⁴³ For more on the techniques of Jesuit mapmaking see, Altic, Encounters in the New World, 34–40.

⁴⁴ The mouth of the Sonora on his 1688 map is located on c. 251° East of Tenerife, while the 1692 map designates the same place as 247° East.

⁴⁵ Kino never indicated his prime meridian, but it is believed that he referred to Tenerife or Ferro (less than one degree apart). Although he did not indicate the prime meridian on his maps as well, Gilg’s use of Tenerife was clearly confirmed in his 1692 account.

⁴⁶ Based on Greenwich, the mission is situated at 29°N and 110°30’W.

⁴⁷ Di Peso and Matson, “The Seri Indians in 1692,” 49–50.

⁴⁸ Alonso de León (1640–1691) was born in León, Spain. He grew up on Mexico’s northern frontier, where he enrolled in a school to be prepared for a career as a naval officer. He joined the Spanish Navy in 1657, but his service as a naval cadet was brief. Over the next two decades, he led a series of entradas that traversed the northeastern coast of New Spain, as well as the banks of the Río de San Juan. After being appointed General in 1687, he became the first governor of the newly created province of Coahuila, which was intended to serve as a bulwark against the threatening French presence in the Gulf of Mexico. Between 1686 and 1689, de León led four expeditions to Texas, searching for La Salle’s lost colony. In 1690, de León was involved in establishing San Francisco de los Tejas (Augusta, Texas), the first Spanish mission in East Texas. Donald E. Chipman, “De Leon, Alonso,” Handbook of Texas Online, accessed February 01, 2023, https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/de-leon-alonso.

⁴⁹ For reports and diaries of de León’s expeditions, including those of 1689, see, Herbert Bolton, Spanish Exploration in the Southwest, 1542–1706. New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1916.

⁵⁰ Juan del Rincon (1647–1711) was born in Cádiz, Spain. He took his novitiate in Tepotzotlán, Mexico, in 1669. From 1677 he served at the college in Durango and a year later he was in the mission of Cumpas in Sonora. In 1681, he is back to Nueva Vizcaya, working at the college of Parras where he served until his death in 1711. Zambrano and Gutiérrez Casillas, Diccionario Bio-Bibliográfico, XVI: 436–437.

⁵¹ In 1690, after having been named Comisario for the planned east Texas missions, the Franciscan Father Damián Massenet assisted in the creation of the San Francisco de los Tejas Mission. Later that year, he oversaw the establishment of the mission of Santísimo Nombre de María, also near the Neches River. Massenet would soon leave east Texas due to a disagreement with de León over the size of the military contingent at San Francisco de los Tejas. Poorly supplied and insufficiently defended, the Texas missions were abandoned within a few years. Spain would not establish a permanent base in Texas until 1716.

⁵² Mission Nacameri, modern-day Rayón, was established in 1638. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 118.

⁵³ For more on Kappus see, Tomaž Nabergoj, “A letter of Marcus Antonius Kappus to Eusebius Franciscus Kino (Sonora in 1690).” Acta Neophilologica, 31 (1998), 65–80; Albrecht Classen, “The Scientific, Anthropological, Geological, and Geographic Exploration of Northern Mexico by Eighteenth-Century German Jesuit Missionaries. A Religious and Scientific Network of Multilingual Writers. With a Focus on Johann Nentuig and Marcus Antonius Kappus.” Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung, 122 (2014), 40–61; Maja Šabec and Tomaž Nabergoj, Marko Anton Kappus, Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani, 2021.

⁵⁴ Opodepe was an Eudeve community that was first proselytized by the Franciscans. It became the Jesuit visita of Nuestra Señora de la Asunción in 1649. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 113.

⁵⁵ Tuape was one of the earliest royal mines in Sonora. In the early 1640s, a Franciscan mission was established there. The Jesuits countered by establishing the Jesuit visita of San Miguel de Tuape—with Cucurpe as its cabecera—in 1647. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 115.

⁵⁶ The first mission in Cucurpe, among the Eudeves of Cucurpe, was established by Franciscans in the 1640s. It became the Jesuit mission of Los Santos Reyes Magos in 1647. It soon became a productive agricultural and ranching center that supplied other missions in northwestern New Spain. Saracachi became an important mining district during the mid-eighteenth century. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 113, 503.

⁵⁷ Founded among the Himeris, an Upper Pima group, in 1687, Dolores remained Kino’s home mission and the starting point for his explorations for the rest of his life. Around 1745, Dolores was abandoned because of disease and Apache attacks. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 291.

⁵⁸ San Ignacio de Caburica along the Magdalena River was established by Kino in 1687, with the estancia Santa Ana located nearby. The mission of Nuestra Señora de los Remedios de Coágibubig was founded by Kino among the Himeris, an Upper Pima group, in 1687. Located along the headwaters of the Dolores River, by 1740, it was abandoned because of Apache attacks. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 502.

⁵⁹ Located about sixty kilometers upstream from Pitic (modern-day Hermosillo), Ures was an important community along the Sonora River, populated by Lower Pimas. The Jesuits founded a mission there in 1636. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 114.

⁶⁰ The mission of San Pedro de Aconchi was founded among the Opatas by the Jesuit missionary Bartolomé Castaños in 1639. Aconchi was the cabecera of the visita of Nuestra Señora de la Concepción de Baviácora. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 295.

⁶¹ Nuestro Padre San Ignacio de Sinoquipe was originally founded as a visita of Huépac among the Opata Indians along the Río Sonora in 1646. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 504.

⁶² Sobas, an Upper Pima group living along the Río de la Concepción in the vicinity of Caborca. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 120.

⁶³ The bay was then known as San Juan Baptista and the islet as the Isla Pelícano.

⁶⁴ On his early maps (1696–97, 1701, 1702) Kino named the same island the Isla de San Augustín. It was only his 1710 map that designated the island as Seris, the same as Gilg did. Strangely enough, the Tiburón appeared on a map by Domingo del Castillo, which was drawn in 1541, and was later reproduced in Francisco Antonio de Lorenzana, Historia de Nueva-España, escrita por su esclarecido conquistador Hernán Cortés. Mexico City: Imprenta del Supremo Gobierno, 1770, 328.

⁶⁵ This note may also originate from Juan Ortiz Zapata’s report on the Seris, written in 1678. When speaking about some island in the Gulf of California (possibly the Isla Tiburón), he mentioned logs and finished planks, smashed chests, and broken china plates and bowls that the sea had washed up to the island’s coasts. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 38–39.

⁶⁶ Di Peso and Matson, “The Seri Indians in 1692,” 49.

⁶⁷ About two kilometers north of Opodepe is the small settlement of El Real at the mouth of the Cañada El Real. It is possible that an early mining community might have been located there. Another small settlement—San José—lies about three kilometers farther north along the San Miguel. Founded in the mid-seventeenth century, the Bacanuchi mine was located north of the Arizpe, also generating significant income. Sheridan, Empires of Sand, 115; Polzer and Sheridan, The Presidio and Militia, 279, 363.

⁶⁸ Di Peso and Matson, “The Seri Indians in 1692,” 47.

⁶⁹ Di Peso and Matson, “The Seri Indians in 1692,” 50.

⁷⁰ Although Kino visited the island in 1706, it became better known to Spanish authorities only after Juan de Ugarte’s expedition to the island in 1721. The island gained more attention in 1729, when it was invaded by the Spanish military, led by Juan Bautista de Anza. Donald T. Garate, Juan Bautista de Anza: Basque Explorer in the New World, 1693–1740. Las Vegas: University of Nevada Press, 2003, 133–34.

⁷¹ Nuestra Señora del Pilar y Santiago de Cocóspera was founded by Kino in 1689. Originally a visita of Kino’s headquarters at Dolores, it became a cabecera after Remedios and Dolores were abandoned because of disease and Apache attacks in the 1740s. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 499.

⁷² Located farther downstream along the Altar River, San Antonio del Oquitoa founded in 1689, was first a visita of Caborca, then of Tubutama, and, finally, of Atil. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 502.

⁷³ The mission of San Pedro y San Pablo de Tubutama was established in 1689 among the Upper Pimas living along the Altar River. It had four visitas. The mission was attacked and burned by the Upper Pima rebels in 1695. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 499.

⁷⁴ Santa Gertrudis de Sáric was an Upper Pima community along the Altar River that was missionized by Kino in 1689. The visita of San Bernardo de Aquimuri was established the same year. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 499. Gilg misplaced the position of Aquimuri (Muicaqua on the map), designating it as to the south of Sáric. Moreover, Sáric is designated as a village instead of a mission.

⁷⁵ Tucubabi, also spelled Tucubavia, was located at the headwaters of the Altar River north of Sáric. San Ambrosio de Búsanic y Tucubavia was founded as a visita of Sáric in 1689. It was located north of Sáric along the Altar River. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 499.

⁷⁶ The mission of Santa María de Soamca was established by Father Kino along the upper Santa Cruz River. It was destroyed by the Apaches in 1768 and its population moved to Cocóspera. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 497.

⁷⁷ The mission San Luis Bacoancos, located near modern-day Nogales, was established in 1691, but was soon abandoned due to Apache attacks.

⁷⁸ The mission of Los Santos Ángeles de Guevavi was situated on the east bank of the Santa Cruz River, in modern Arizona. Founded by Kino, the mission did not have a resident missionary until 1732. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 497.

⁷⁹ De la Torre Curiel, “Tierra Incognita,” 470.

⁸⁰ Teatro de los trabajos apostólicos de la Compa. de Jesus en la America Septentrional, compiled in 1695/96, and the map of Pimería, drawn in 1696/97 to illustrate the biography of the martyred Father Francisco Xavier Saeta. Both are kept in the ARSI.

⁸¹ Radding, Wandering Peoples, 38.

⁸² Although not the first act of conflict, the Pima uprising of 1695 was the first widespread rebellion that affected western Pimería. The uprising was triggered by the excessive rigidity of certain missionaries and Spanish officers who tried to suppress the Pimas forcefully. After the massacre of Pimas at El Tupo, the wider Pima revolt of 1695 eventually targeted every mission in the Pimeria Alta, burning the churches, desecrating Catholic images and killing or stealing cattle. Brandon Bayne,“Willy-Nilly Baptisms and Chichimeca Freedoms: Missionary Disputes, Indigenous Desires and the 1695 O’odham Revolt.” Journal of early modern history 21 (2017) 9–37.

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Mirela Altic

Mirela Altic is a Chief Research Fellow at the Institute of Social Sciences and Full Professor in the Department of History, University of Zagreb. She specializes in the social history of maps, cross-cultural knowledge exchange and early modern encounters. She is author of twenty books and numerous scholarly papers, and is a contributor to The History of Cartography Project. Besides her interest in Central European map history, over the last decade, she has published extensively on the Jesuit cartography and missionary contribution to the history of mapmaking and exploration in general. Her latest book, Encounters in the New World: Jesuit Cartography of the Americas, was published in 2022 by University of Chicago Press. Currently she serves as chair of International Society for the History of the Map (ISHMap).