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Notes
1. International Space Center, 2007, < http://spacecenter.org> (accessed3 February 2007).
2. On the development and importance of the panorama for mass entertainment in the nineteenth century, see von Plessen, “Der gebannte Augenblick.”
3. Concerning the Trans-Siberian panorama at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1900, see Archives nationals de France; Remnev, “Uchastie komiteta sibirskoi zheleznoi dorogi vo vsemirnoi vystavke 1900 goda v Parizhe,” 167–76; Poulsen, Die Transsibirische Eisenbahn, 58; and von Plessen, “Der gebannte Augenblick,” 12, 17.
4. von Plessen, “Der gebannte Augenblick,” 18.
5. Donelly, “Peter the Great and Siberia,” 119–26.
6. Lincoln, Die Eroberung Sibiriens, 107, 111; Fisher, The Russian Fur Trade, 69, 119, 135, 230.
7. Stökl, Russische Geschichte, 362.
8. On characterizations and definitions of empires, especially the Russian Empire, see Münkler, Imperien: Motyl, Imperial Ends; Lieven, Empire; idem, “Dilemmas of Empire 1850–1918”; idem, “The Russian Empire and the Soviet Union as Imperial Polities.”
9. Concerning the concept of Siberia, or Asia, as Russia's “Other,” see O'Connell, “Constructing the Russian Other”; Bassin, “Imperialer Raum/Nationaler Raum”; Tolz, Russia; Fryer, “Heaven, Hell, Or … Something in Between?”; Hellberg-Hirn, “Ambivalent Space”; idem, Soil and Soul; Diment and Slezkine, Between Heaven and Hell; Bassin, “Russia between Europe and Asia”; Riasanovsky, “Asia through Russian Eyes.”
10. von Herberstein, Das alte Russland, 12.
11. Zamoyski, 1812, 296–97.
12. Concerning the mental appropriation of Siberia, see Weiss Citation(2007).
13. Concerning the annexation of the Amur and the mental claim to this area, see Bassim, Imperial Visions.
14. For example, in the report of the surveyor Peshchurov, “Peschtschuroff's Aufnahme des Amur-Stromes,” 476.
15. On the meanings of international exhibitions for national identity, see Fuchs, Weltausstellungen im 19. Jahrhundert; Rembold, “Exhibitions and National Identity”; Benedict, “International Exhibitions and National Identity”; Wilson, “Consuming History.”
16. Benedict, “International Exhibitions and National Identity,” 5; Rembold, “Exhibitions and National Identity,” 222.
17. Wilson, “Consuming History,” 138.
18. Schriefers, Für den Abriss gebaut?, 29.
19. Fisher, “Westliche Hegemonie und russische Ambivalenz,” 45.
20. Peshkova, “Parizh,” 24.
21. Fisher, “Westliche Hegemonie und russische Ambivalenz,” 51.
22. Cited in Saul, Concord and Conflict, 139.
23. The US was Russia's most viable partner against Great Britain, which had again started to undermine Russian interests in the Balkans. Fisher, “Westliche Hegemonie und russische Ambivalenz,” 51.
24. Vladimirov, Russkii sredi Amerikantsev, 325–26.
25. Fisher, “Westliche Hegemonie und russische Ambivalenz,” 54.
26. Ibid., 54–55.
27. Leslie, Frank Leslie's Illustrated Historical Register of the Centennial Exposition, 1876, 1877, 95–96.
28. Smith, The Masterpieces of the Centennial International Exhibition, 280.
29. Fisher, “Westliche Hegemonie und russische Ambivalenz,” 57.
30. Commission impériale de Russie, p. V.
31. Aubain, “La Russie à l'exposition universelle de 1889,” 356–58.
32. Ibid., 359.
33. Sokolov, “Rossiia na vsemirnoi vystavke v Chikago v 1893 g,” 156.
34. In order to facilitate the organisation of the Russian section at the Universal Exhibition in Chicago the Ministry of Finance brought out a booklet with the most important references and all the groups listed. See Archiv Russkogo Geograficheskogo Obshchestva (ARGO), 1-1892, 1892.
35. Sokolov, 157.
36. Ibid., 161.
37. Siberia and the Great Siberian Railway.
38. Ibid., 24.
39. Ibid., 34.
40. Ibid., 42.
41. Ibid., 265.
42. For the Universal Exhibition in 1900 the committee of ministers published a small booklet in Russian and German entitled Die Große Sibirische Eisenbahn (St. Petersburg, 1900). The Ministry of Finance published two publications that reflected on the presentation of Siberia of the Chicago publication: Kovalevskii, Rossiia v konce XIX veka; and Semenov, Okrainy Rossii. In 1901 the Russian Ministry of Transport and Communication published a voluminous book that documented the actual state of the railway project. It was also translated into English and German: Wegweiser der Großen Sibirischen Eisenbahn. In Germany, several publications were produced that discussed the Great Siberian Railway, based on the same geographical descriptions. For example: Krahmer, Sibirien und die große sibirische Eisenbahn; Ruge, Die Transsibirische Eisenbahn.
43. On the impact of stereotypes and symbols for national identity, see Link and Wülfing, Nationale Mythen und Symbole in der zweiten Hälfte des 19.
44. Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas; Kretschmer, Geschichte der Weltausstellungen.
45. Peshkova, “Parizh,” 26.
46. Aubain, “La Russie à l'éxposition universelle de 1889”; Orlov, Vsemirnaia Parizhskaia vystavka 1900 goda v illiustratsiakh i opisaniakh, 223, 233.
47. Rossiia na vsemirnoi vystavke v Parizhe v 1900 godu, 99.
48. Gubkin, “Istoki ornamentiki Kaslinskogo chugunnogo pavil'ona,” 8.
49. Schriefers, Für den Abriss gebaut?, 24.
50. Gubkin, “Istoki ornamentiki Kaslinskogo chugunnogo pavil'ona,” 16. Overall, 2,827 Grands Prix were awarded at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1900; 212 of them went to exhibits of the Russian Empire.
51. Gubkin, “Istoki ornamentiki Kaslinskogo chugunnogo pavil'ona,” 9.
52. Wortman, “The ‘Russian Style’ in Church Architecture as Imperial Symbol after 1881”; O'Connell, “A Rational, National Architecture.”
53. Salmond, Arts and Crafts in Late Imperial Russia, 3.
54. By the turn of the century production had reached its peak in the extraction of pig iron: 179.1 million pud per annum, and of cast iron: 165.2 million pud per annum (Geyer, Der russische Imperialismus, 110). One pud equals 16.38 kilograms.
55. This style had two basic ideological assumptions: (1) a human aim, based on the devotion to sources of national culture, as an attempt to give a deeper sense to things by imagining how former generations lived. (2) The amalgamation of artistic energies from all artistic styles made it possible to create any object in the wholeness of the world's shape (Kriazheva, “Elementy stilia ‘modern’ v dekore Kaslinskogo pavil'ona,” 54).
56. Ibid., 55.
57. Sirin is a legendary bird of paradise with a human form; it is a bird of joy, success. It entrances people with its singing. Its songs are a model of the divine word, which enchants humankind, and the singing elicits joy. Only a happy or lucky person can hear the song, and not everyone can see Sirin, for she flies away as quickly as do fame and success. Alkonost is also a bird of paradise; in apocrypha and legends the bird of sorrow and melancholy. The image of Alkonost is traceable to the Greek myth of Alcion, who threw himself into the sea and was transformed by the gods into a kingfisher (halcyon). Alkonost lays eggs on the seashore and, burying them in the depths of the sea, makes it calm for six days. Whoever hears Alkonost's song forgets about everything in the world.
58. Gubkin, “Istoki ornamentiki Kaslinskogo chugunnogo pavil'ona,” 11.
59. Ibid., 12.
60. Archiv Russkoi Akademii Nauk (ARAN), fond 906, op. 1 n° 12, l. 98.
61. Semenov, Okrainy Rossii, unpaginated preface.
62. Remnev, “Uchastie komiteta sibirskoi zheleznoi dorogi vo vsemirnoi vystavke 1900 goda v Parizhe,” 169.
63. ‘Of the numerous regions of Russia, without a doubt, there is no other region in which studies would be of such practical interest, and even of state interest, than Siberia, which conceals in its depths such productive forces, waiting only for man's enterprising hands to transform them into a never-ending source of richness for the State and the Russian people. In addition, Siberia's geographical make-up constitutes one of the most important parts of the Asian continent, the study of which must be seen as one of the major tasks of Russian science, and for us as Russians, with our close ties to Asia, it is the object of great interest and importance’ (Otchet IRGO za 1851, 6–7).
64. Aimone and Olmo, Les Expositions universelles, 202.
65. This was the title given to Fridtjof Nansens' book Sibirien—ein Zukunftsland, in which Nansen describes his experiences on a railway journey across Siberia.
66. Remnev (“Uchastie komiteta sibirskoi zheleznoi dorogi vo vsemirnoi vystavke 1900 goda v Parizhe,” 172–75) gives a good overview of reactions in the international press.
67. Forbes, < http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/10/Rank_1.html> (accessed3 February 2007).