Residual history: memory and activism in modern Poland

Abstract

This article examines the divide between national and local collective memory in Poland and investigates the role of “memory activists” in mediating and exploiting this divide. It narrows its focus to the ethnic cleansing of Poles by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) from 1943 to 1944 and the forced relocation of Ukrainians in Poland, Operation Vistula, in 1947. It surveys local and national newspapers to understand competing interpretations and analyzes what incidents (e.g. protests, disputes, commemorations, reenactments, etc.) related to these events take place in local communities. It highlights the many actors, “memory activists,” and associations involved in pushing specific, often ahistorical, interpretations of these events – motivated by political gain, careerism, or personal conviction. It uses the theoretical works of Maurice Halbwachs and Karl Mannheim to effectively distinguish between local and national phenomenon and to elucidate the various nuances of collective memory.

Keywords:

• Poland
• Ukrainian insurgent army
• Operation Vistula
• collective memory
• nationalist activism

Notes

1. This quote by Tom Nairn remains one of the most concise descriptions of contemporary nationalism. It was first used by Geoff Eley (in multiple works), see Eley (1981, 104) and Eley (1986, 73).

2. This work is the result of an earlier media analysis conducted on the largest provincial newspaper in every single province in Poland. Using data published on circulation statistics by the Press Control Distribution Association, Związek Kontroli Dystrybucji Prasy – ZKDP, (zkdp.pl) the author searched the main databases of each newspaper and then collected and read every relevant article (articles on the football team Wisła Kraków and the Czech ski resort Malá Úpa were obviously discarded). The search was conducted for the years 2006–2012 (additionally, the provinces discussed in this article were updated through 2013). For a similar media analysis from the mid-1990s to 2005, see Copsey (2009). Initial search terms included Wołyn 1943, Akcja Wisła, Banderowcy, OUN, OUN–UPA, and UPA. However, the strongest key terms (i.e. which were in virtually every article relevant to the massacres in Volyn or Operation Vistula, if not in the headline than certainly in the article text) were undoubtedly UPA and Akcja Wisła, respectively. The terminology used in this article reflects these results. With regard to the killings of Ukrainians by Polish forces, the village of Sahryń was the most frequently cited. Sahryń was razed to the ground on 10 March 1944 by Polish partisan forces (Jasiak 2001). However, in the newspapers analyzed, the killing of Ukrainians by Poles was much less frequently discussed than Operation Vistula or the joint attacks between UPA and WiN. The 2012 circulation data on the average single printed press run of each newspaper are as follows: National Newspapers: Gazeta Wyborcza 347,076; Rzeczpospolita 133,120. Lower Silesian Province: Gazeta Wrocławska: 34,323. The Province of Warmia and Mazuria: Gazeta Olsztynska (Ukraińcy and Dziennik Elbląski are subsidiaries): 29,930. Subcarpathian Province: Nowiny: 31,670. Lublin Province: Dziennik Wschodni: 14,730. However, all of these newspapers have an online presence in addition to their print circulation and these statistics do not take this into account.

3. Prezydenci Polski i Ukrainy Razem o Akcji ‘Wisła’ i Przyszłości.” 27 April 2007. http://www.pis.org.pl/article.php?id=7235.

4. Józef Wysocki's polemical attack on Grzegorz Motyka's educational work for the IPN can be accessed here: http://www.isakowicz.pl/index.php?page=news&kid=126&nid=3717, accessed 23 December 2013

5. “Dlaczego dr Motyka nie powinien zasiadać w Radzie IPN.” Salon24, 13 February 2011. http://www.65-lat-temu.salon24.pl/278272,dlaczego-dr-motyka-nie-powinien-zasiadac-w-radzie-ipn.

6. “Polemika z Czechem. Zbrodnia wołyńska: prawda i demagogia.” Gazeta Wyborcza, 18 June 2013.

7. “Za nami konferencja o zbrodniach ukraińskich nacjonalistów na Kresach.” Gazeta Wrocławska, 24 June 2013.

8. “Book Eyes Church Role in Polish Communist Era.” MSNBC, 26 February 2007. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17349939/ns/world_news-europe/t/book-eyes-church-role-polish-communist-era/.

9. “Zaleski: Rodziny pomordowanych Polaków mają żal do władz.” Gazeta Lubuska, 6 March 2009.

10. “Ukraińcy wypominają nam pacyfikacje.” Dziennik Wschodni, 7 June 2010.

11. Interview by S. Allison, 4 April 2012, Kraków.

12. Zapałowski's writings can be found on his website at http://www.zapalowski.eu/.

13. See, for example, “Rubínové kříže.” Episode four of the Czechoslovak television series, Třicet případů majora Zemana (1975).

14. Translation is from Follis (2012).

15. Website of Wrocław's minority initiative, Kaleidoscope of Cultures: http://www.kalejdoskopkultur.pl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=12&Itemid=23, accessed 11 November 2013.

16. Wrocław's decision to honor Oksana Zabuzhko with the “Angelus” literary prize in the lead up to the 2013 Vilnius Summit exemplifies this trend. For an in-depth discussion, please see Uilleam Blacker's blog post here: http://ukraineanalysis.wordpress.com/category/polish-ukrainian-relations/.

17. “Chcą zmienić ulicę Szewczenki na Ofiar UPA.” Gazeta Wrocławska, 22 April 2009.

18. “Chcą zmienić ulicę Szewczenki na Ofiar UPA.” Gazeta Wrocławska, 22 April 2009.

19. “Zimę przeżyli w oborze. Rozmowa o Akcji Wisła.” Gazeta Wrocławska, 7 August 2012.

20. “Dolnośląski sejmik uczcił pamięć pomordowanych przez UPA i OUN na Kresach.” Gazeta Wrocławska, 23 May 2013.

21. “Obchody rocznicy rzezi wołyńskiej na wrocławskim rynku.” Gazeta Wrocławska, 14 July 2013.

22. “Eufemizmy zamiast prawdy-wywiad z Tadeuszem Isakowiczem-Zaleskim.”Gazeta Wrocławska, 20 July 2013.

23. See “Świerczewski symbolem polsko-ukraińskiego pojednania. Śmiechu warte.” Ukraińcy, 31 March 2013; and “Akcja Wisła: śmierć generała Świerczewskiego.” Ukraińcy, 24 March 2011.

24. “WiN i UPA bedą miały wspólny obelisk.” Ukraińcy, 14 June 2012.

25. “Cyganka zawiniła, Ukraińców powiesili.” Ukraińcy, 14 November 2011.

26. “Projekt uchwały sejmowej w sprawie Akcji Wisła.” Ukraińcy, 1 January 2013.

27. “Spotkanie otwarte z księdzem Tadeuszem Isakowiczem-Zaleskim.” Dziennik Elblągski, 13 March 2013.

28. “Berezka: ginęli Ci na literę U.” Ukraińcy, 13 April 2013.

29. “Trudne rozmowy o akcji Wisła.” Nowiny, 25 February 2007.

30. “Antyukraińskie transparenty podczas Święta Niepodległości.” Nowiny, 11 November 2008.

31. Interview by S. Allison, 23 April 2012, Kraków.

32. Interview by S. Allison, 4 April 2012, Kraków.

33. “Zamieszanie wokół upamiętnienia ofiar UPA w Radrużu.” Nowiny, 4 December 2009.

34. “Zapałowski: trzeba sprzeciwić się rajdowi Bandery.” Nowiny, 2 August 2009.

35. “Zbudują w Radymnie wioskę, odtworzą rzeź wołyńską.” Nowiny, 16 March 2013; “Rzeź okazała się sukcesem.” Gazeta Wyborcza, 24 July 2013. For an in-depth analysis of the reenactment, please see Pasieka (forthcoming).

36. See, for example, “66 lat temu zginął generał Świerczewski.” Nowiny, 28 March 2013.

37. “Ulica przepychanek.” Kurier Lubelski, 21 April 2009.

38. “Dla kogo Sława?: Wołyniacy a restauracja z kuchnią ukraińską.” Dziennik Wschodni, 24 January 2012.

39. A kitsch restaurant in Lviv styled as an underground UPA bunker.

40. “Bandera bohaterem Ukrainy. Kresowianie: To kpiny z naszego cierpienia.” Dziennik Wschodni, 24 January 2010.

41. “Chcą zmienić ulicę Szewczenki na Ofiar UPA.” Gazeta Wrocławska, 22 April 2009; “Ulica przepychanek.” Kurier Lubelski, 21 April 2009.

42. “Na Wołyniu stanął kolejny polski krzyż.” Dziennik Wschodni, 27 July 2011.

43. “Ukraińscy politycy do zamojskich radnych: Nie wtrącajcie się.” Dziennik Wschodni, 29 April 2012.

44. “Radnym Zamościa z Banderą nie po drodze.” Dziennik Wschodni, 17 July 2012.

45. “Radnym Zamościa z Banderą nie po drodze.” Dziennik Wschodni, 17 July 2012.

46. For an analysis of these two newspapers through 2005, see Copsey (2009).

47. ZKDP

48. See, among others, “Skończmy z pięknymi bajkami o UPA.” Gazeta Wyborcza, 22 March 2009.

49. “Ukraińskie Kościoły o rzezi wołyńskiej: Wybaczmy sobie.” Gazeta Wyborcza, 29 April 2013.

50. “Wspólna deklaracja Kościołów katolickiego i grekokatolickiego w sprawie zbrodni na Wołyniu.” Gazeta Wyborcza, 19 June 2013.

51. “Ukraińskie Kościoły o rzezi wołyńskiej: Wybaczmy sobie.” Gazeta Wyborcza, 29 April 2013.

52. See Janowski (2012).

53. “1341 sprawiedliwych.” Rzeczpospolita, 23 November 2013.

54. “Ks. Isakowicz-Zaleski: Prezydent nie miał odwagi powiedzieć prawdy.” Rzeczpospolita, 11 July 2013.

55. “Kto zatopi Swobodę?” Rzeczpospolita, 10 October 2013.

56. “Wszystkich mogił nie odnajdziemy.” Rzeczpospolita, 31 October 2013.