Mental Health of Lesbian, Bisexual, and Other-Identified Parents and Non-Parents from a Population-Based Study

Figures & data

Table 1. Demographics of the sample by sexual orientation and parenthood status with unweighted sample sizes and weighted percentages (N = 794)

	Sexual orientation
	Lesbian/gay women(n = 301; 30.0%)						Bisexual women(n = 352; 52.4%)						Other sexual orientation(n = 141; 17.7%)
	No children		Children^a				No children		Children^b				No children		Children^c
	(n = 213; 76.5%)		(n = 88; 23.5%)				(n = 238; 73.5%)		(n = 114; 26.5%)				(n = 121; 89.2%)		(n = 20; 10.8%)
	n	%	n	%	F	p^d	n	%	n	%	F	p^d	n	%	n	%	F	p^d
Age cohort					16.328	<.001					54.005	<.001					27.975	<.001
Youngest (18–25)	84	64.2	6	16.0			183	88.0	23	33.8			91	85.2	3	19.9
Middle (34–41)	38	15.5	24	32.6			41	9.7	63	53.0			20	11.2	13	68.8
Oldest (52–59)	91	20.4	58	51.3			14	2.3	28	13.3			10	3.6	4	11.3
Gender identity					0.008	.927					0.139	.709					7.632	.007
Woman	208	98.3	85	98.5			233	97.4	111	96.4			77	59.3	18	90.1
Non-binary/gender queer	5	1.7	3	1.5			5	2.6	3	3.6			44	40.7	2	9.9
Race/Ethnicity					1.145	.330					1.046	.370					2.080	.104
Black	32	22.8	11	15.4			29	11.6	13	14.0			16	14.1	4	18.9
Latino	21	11.0	6	6.4			23	9.2	6	5.9			7	9.1	3	15.1
White	132	49.6	57	63.3			140	61.5	75	68.5			77	58.8	7	26.5
Other^e	28	16.6	14	14.8			46	17.8	20	11.5			21	18.0	6	39.6
Born in U.S.					0.219	.640					0.077	.782					0.970	.326
No	10	4.2	3	2.9			11	3.7	5	3.0			5	3.2	0	0
Yes	202	95.8	85	97.1			227	96.3	109	97.0			116	96.8	20	100.0
U.S. Region of residence					0.199	.891					0.469	.702					1.025	.381
Northeast	45	18.3	17	17.3			48	18.8	26	23.6			23	20.5	4	17.6
Midwest	32	14.5	13	16.1			50	21.5	22	24.7			30	27.8	2	10.5
West	50	21.4	28	25.7			64	26.0	34	22.4			37	28.7	7	39.2
South	86	45.7	30	40.8			76	33.7	32	29.4			31	22.9	7	32.8
Level of education					2.308	.088					3.661	.020					3.268	.031
High school or less	38	42.2	12	33.1			68	51.8	19	37.8			20	32.7	1	13.8
Some college	66	31.9	22	27.0			88	31.8	51	42.2			41	37.9	5	34.9
College degree	64	16.2	21	16.9			58	11.9	20	8.9			45	23.3	4	14.3
More than college	45	9.8	33	23.0			24	4.5	24	11.1			15	6.2	10	37.0
Employment					0.990	.370					2.944	.054					0.304	.737
Full time	131	55.2	59	60.4			105	37.7	49	37.9			60	49.5	10	52.7
Part time	31	19.0	6	9.3			64	34.3	24	20.8			33	28.7	3	19.5
Unemployed	44	25.9	19	30.2			55	28.0	34	41.3			23	21.8	5	27.7
Urbanicity					1.381	.241					4.888	.028					0.396	.530
Non-urban	26	14.1	15	22.0			26	11.4	22	23.3			11	8.0	2	13.3
Urban	187	85.9	73	78.0			212	88.6	92	76.7			110	92.0	18	86.7
Relationship					6.503	.011					13.226	<.001					0.496	.482
No	86	38.0	17	19.4			92	39.5	21	17.6			45	39.2	4	28.6
Yes	126	62.0	71	80.6			144	60.5	93	82.4			76	60.8	15	71.4
Gender of current partner^f					0.959	.372					0.987	.406					2.657	.053
Woman (non-TG)	123	96.6	70	98.3			20	9.2	8	9.2			29	33.3	9	56.1
Man (non-TG)	1	0.6	1	1.7			118	87.4	84	90.4			43	62.8	3	25.4
TG woman	0	0	0	0			1	0.6	0	0			2	1.4	1	3.9
TG man	0	0	0	0			3	2.5	0	0			0	0	0	0
Non-binary/genderqueer	2	2.8	0	0			1	0.3	1	0.5			2	2.5	2	14.6

^aChild(ren) under age 18 living with the parent: n = 40 (n = 6, n = 20, and n= 14, for the youngest, middle, and oldest cohort, respectively). Child(ren) under age 18 not living with the parent: n = 4 (all in the middle cohort). Child(ren) 18 years or older living with the parent: n = 21 (all in the oldest cohort). Child(ren) 18 years or older not living with the parent: n = 35 (n = 1, n = 1, and n = 33 for the youngest, middle, and oldest cohort, respectively).

^bChild(ren) under age 18 living with the parent: n = 80 (n = 23, n = 52, n = 5, for the youngest, middle, and oldest cohort, respectively). Child(ren) under age 18 not living with the parent: n = 15 (n = 2, n = 11, n = 2, for the youngest, middle, and oldest cohort, respectively). Child(ren) 18 years or older living with the parent: n = 19 (n = 10 and n = 9 for the middle and oldest cohort, respectively). Child(ren) 18 years or older living with the parent: n = 22 (n = 5 and n = 17 for the middle and oldest cohort, respectively).

^cChild(ren) under age 18 living with the parent: n = 15 (n = 2, n = 12, and n = 1, for the youngest, middle, and oldest cohort, respectively). Child(ren) under age 18 not living with the parent: n = 4 (n = 1, n = 2, n = 1, for the youngest, middle, and oldest cohort, respectively). Child(ren) 18 years or older not living with the parent: n = 2 for the oldest cohort).

^dAnalyses are based on weighted data. The F test is based on the second-order Rao-Scott adjusted chi-square statistic.

^eOther comprises participants with an Asian, (n = 1 for lesbian women), American Indian/Native American (n = 1 for bisexual women) or multiracial background (n = 41 for lesbian women, n = 65 for bisexual women, and n = 27 for women with another sexual orientation).

^fTG = transgender. To increase expected cell counts, we also conducted three adjusted F tests of independence using three rather than five categories—cis woman, cis man, and other identity than cisgender. Because these three tests were also non-significant (p = .549 for lesbian women, p = .223 for bisexual women, and p = .707 for women with another sexual orientation), the full list of partner gender options and their associated frequencies is presented here for descriptive purposes.

Table 2. Differences in mental health factors across parenthood status and age cohort for three groups of different sexual orientations

	Parenthood		Age cohort			Parenthood		Age cohort		Parenthood x Age cohort
	No children	Children	Youngest (18–25 years)	Middle (34–41 years)	Oldest(52–59 years)	Wald F	p	Wald F	p	Wald F	p
Lesbian/Gay women	(n = 213; 76.5%)	(n = 88; 23.5%)	(n = 90; 52.9%)	(n = 62; 19.5%)	(n = 149; 27.6%)
Felt stigma	2.752 (0.082)	2.871 (0.117)	2.842 (0.108)	2.807 (0.133)	2.643 (0.104)	3.200	.075	2.213	.111	0.190	.827
Internalized homophobia	1.603 (0.062)	1.515 (0.105)	1.644 (0.088)	1.619 (0.109)	1.438 (0.055)	0.015	.903	1.172	.311	0.952	.387
Community connectedness	3.115 (0.060)	3.087 (0.070)	3.292 (0.063)^a	2.899 (0.142)^b	2.907 (0.057)^b	3.837	.051	7.924	<.001	1.210	.300
Social support family	4.589 (0.158)	4.940 (0.227)	4.636 (0.205)	4.641 (0.308)	4.760 (0.167)	0.797	.373	0.197	.821	1.001	.369
Social support friends	5.416 (0.136)	5.320 (0.191)	5.322 (0.183)	5.526 (0.222)	5.437 (0.140)	0.222	.638	0.093	.911	0.450	.638
Psychological distress	7.700 (0.444)	5.810 (0.758)	8.800 (0.566)^a	6.840 (0.934)^ab	4.600 (0.460)^b	0.743	.389	8.562	<.001	4.297	.014
Life satisfaction	4.280 (0.136)	4.580 (0.207)	4.110 (0.175)	4.510 (0.246)	4.690 (0.168)	0.467	.495	0.292	.747	1.844	.160
Happiness	1.950 (0.050)	2.120 (0.093)	1.900 (0.067)	2.100 (0.96)	2.080 (0.068)	2.407	.122	0.223	.800	3.357	.036
Bisexual women	(n = 238; 73.5%)	(n = 114; 26.5%)	(n = 206; 73.6%)	(n = 104; 21.2%)	(n = 42; 5.2%)
Felt stigma	2.743 (0.069)	2.792 (0.088)	2.761 (0.069)	2.765 (0.101)	2.648 (0.172)	0.111	.739	0.556	.574	0.262	.769
Internalized homophobia	1.547 (0.088)	1.592 (0.076)	1.618 (0.079)	1.492 (0.086)	1.598 (0.130)	0.154	.695	0.614	.542	0.287	.751
Community connectedness	2.963 (0.040)	2.867 (0.065)	3.005 (0.042)^a	2.764 (0.059)^b	2.670 (0.065)^b	0.608	.436	8.447	<.001	0.671	.512
Social support family	4.629 (0.1223)	4.598 (0.197)	4.672 (0.128)	4.552 (0.201)	4.173 (0.277)	0.577	.448	1.713	.182	0.209	.812
Social support friends	5.306 (0.113)	4.826 (0.204)	5.284 (0.119)	4.822 (0.209)	5.140 (0.218)	1.114	.292	0.463	.630	1.670	.190
Psychological distress	10.590 (0.423)	10.900 (0.625)	11.050 (0.430)^a	9.890 (0.672)^b	8.490 (1.020)^b	2.348	.126	5.384	.005	0.110	.896
Life satisfaction	3.970 (0.114)	3.800 (0.184)	4.010 (0.117)	3.560 (0.193)	4.070 (0.278)	0.000	.998	1.932	.146	0.026	.974
Happiness	1.830 (0.044)	1.810 (0.082)	1.860 (0.048)	1.720 (0.071)	1.780 (0.113)	0.096	.756	1.570	.210	1.109	.331
Other sex. oriented women	(n = 121; 89.2%)	(n = 20; 10.8%)	(n = 94; 78.2%)	(n = 33; 17.4%)	(n = 14; 4.4%)
Felt stigma	2.697 (0.091)	2.430 (0.177)	2.438 (0.117)	2.576 (0.176)	2.676 (0.210)	1.803	.182	0.566	.569	1.693	.188
Internalized homophobia	1.518 (0.072)	1.262 (0.090)	1.520 (0.079)	1.354 (0.111)	1.511 (0.221)	8.683	.004	0.001	.999	1.883	.156
Community connectedness	3.054 (0.063)	3.192 (0.170)	3.090 (0.061)^a	3.053 (0.194)^ab	2.770 (0.196)^b	0.163	.687	3.150	.046	1.414	.247
Social support family	4.439 (0.168)	4.452 (0.440)	4.462 (0.172)	4.202 (0.409)	5.002 (0.641)	1.741	.189	2.752	.067	2.645	.075
Social support friends	5.429 (0.139)	5.621 (0.265)	5.462 (0.152)	5.559 (0.255)	4.804 (0.315)	2.360	.127	0.980	.378	1.759	.176
Psychological distress	10.970 (0.578)	9.300 (1.618)	11.370 (0.624)^a	9.490 (1.339)^a	5.760 (1.333)^b	0.481	.489	9.942	<.001	0.299	.742
Life satisfaction	3.930 (0.180)	4.480 (0.565)	3.900 (0.196)^ab	4.030 (0.416)^ab	5.430 (0.396)^a	0.051	.821	3.276	.041	0.899	.409
Happiness	1.760 (0.072)	1.980 (0.164)	1.760 (0.080)	1.860 (0.135)	1.920 (0.206)	0.192	.662	0.867	.423	7.619	.001

Unweighted sample sizes, weighted percentages, and unadjusted means and standard errors are reported. Estimated means in each row that share subscripts do not differ significantly. p values < .05 are in boldface. Sex. = sexually.

Table 3. Differences in mental health factors by parenthood status and sexual orientation while controlling for age cohort

	Non-parents					Parents
	Lesbian/Gay women (n = 213; 29.7%)	Bisexual women (n = 238; 49.9%)	Other sexually oriented women (n = 121; 20.4%)	Wald F	p	Lesbian/Gay women (n= 88; 30.9%)	Bisexual women (n = 114; 60.8%)	Other sexually oriented women (n = 20; 8.4%)	Wald F	p
Felt stigma	2.717 (0.080)	2.671 (0.084)	2.685 (0.117)	0.080	.923	2.923 (0.115)	2.757 (0.097)	2.475 (0.230)	1.608	.203
Internalized homophobia	1.564 (0.060)	1.542 (0.062)	1.446 (0.079)	0.818	.442	1.530 (0.128)^ab	1.577 (0.078)^a	1.267 (0.095)^b	3.575	.030
Community connectedness	3.019 (0.062)^a	2.791 (0.049)^b	2.890 (0.072)^ab	5.075	.007	3.179 (0.070)^a	2.834 (0.060)^b	3.206 (0.165)^a	8.587	<.001
Social support family	4.520 (0.159)	4.517 (0.155)	4.334 (0.197)	0.451	.637	4.940 (0.266)	4.592 (0.203)	4.440 (0.443)	0.663	.516
Social support friends	5.444 (0.127)	5.351 (0.131)	5.472 (0.157)	0.261	.770	5.352 (0.219)^ab	4.865 (0.190)^a	5.718 (0.290)^b	3.423	.034
Psychological distress	6.760 (0.414)^a	8.720 (0.486)^b	9.190 (0.629)^b	6.768	.001	6.360 (0.839)^a	10.600 (0.621)^b	9.190 (1.604)^ab	7.091	.001
Life satisfaction	4.350 (0.135)	4.170 (0.145)	4.130 (0.196)	0.623	.537	4.610 (0.226)^a	3.830 (0.183)^b	4.560 (0.563)^ab	3.675	.027
Happiness	1.980 (0.050)	1.910 (0.053)	1.840 (0.078)	1.428	.241	2.190 (0.092)^a	1.810 (0.082)^b	2.010 (0.171)^ab	4.965	.008

Unweighted sample sizes, weighted percentages, and adjusted means and standard errors are reported. The means and standard errors are adjusted for the effect of age cohort. Estimated means in each row that share subscripts do not differ significantly. p values < .05 are in boldface. The interaction between parenthood and sexual orientation was not significant for felt stigma (F(2, 792 = 0.940, p = .391), internalized homophobia (F(2, 792 = 1.052, p = .350), community connectedness (F(2, 792 = 1.010, p = .365), social support from family (F(2, 792 = 0.501, p = .606), social support from friends (F(2, 792 = 1.671, p = .189), psychological distress (F(2, 792 = 1.477, p = .229), life satisfaction (F(2, 792 = 1.053, p = .349), or happiness (F(2, 771) = 1.188, p = .305).