How do the Chinese Gaokao tests narrate the history of other countries? A textual analysis of “the other” in official representations of history

Figures & data

Table 1. The range of application of the various national volumes in 2021.

Name	Region
Volume I	Henan, Hebei, Shanxi, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Guangdong, Anhui, Fujian
VolumeII	Gansu, Qinghai, Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Ningxia, Xinjiang, Shaanxi, Chongqing
VolumeIII	Yunnan, Guangxi, Guizhou, Sichuan, Tibet
New Gaokao version	Shandong, Hainan
Provincial Autonomous version	Beijing, Tientsin, Shanghai, Zhejiang

Table 2. Criteria for classification in round 2.

Type	Criteria	Number
History of other countries	Test items related to the political, economic, cultural, and territorial history of countries other than China, as well as items related to major world historical events, world organizations, and international conferences	593
Interactions between China and the others	Test items that mentioned Chinese and foreign interactions, the relations or comparisons between China and other countries, the influence of other countries on China, etc.	191

Table 3. Six major narrative themes.

Themes	Communism	The Celestial Empire	Humiliation and Resistance	Social Formations	War	The World Community
Numbers of test questions	100	32	170	320	114	80
Key narrative words	Marxism, Soviet Union, Socialism	Chinese Culture, Four Great Inventions, Silk Road	Invasion, domination, brutal massacre; struggle for independence, national liberation	Changes in lifestyle, changes in political system	World War I, World War II	International alliances, world community, international engagement

Table A1. More examples of history questions in Gaokao.

Theme	Number		History questions
The Narrative of Humiliation and Resistance
China-Related History
War Invasion	37		Fill in the blanks: In November 1894, the invading Japanese army captured the Liaodong Peninsula and carried out an extremely barbaric massacre of all the peaceful residents of Lushun and Dalian, and in December 1937, the invading Japanese army captured Nanking and massacred 300,000 people in China.(Question 40 in1997) In 1927, the Japanese “Eastern Conference” adopted a plan to invade China: (D) A. launch an all-out war of aggression against China B. divide China and take control of northeastern China C. foster the pro-Japanese forces of the Nationalist government D. establish a “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” including China (Question 22 in 2004)
Treaty	27		Fill in the blanks: The Treaty of Nanking provided for the Qing government to make reparations of 21 million silver dollars, and the Treaty of Xinchou provided for the Qing government to make reparations of 450 million taels of silver. (Question 5 in 1988)
Sovereign Encroachment	32		What kind of current situation did the cartoon “The Current Situation” reveal about China at that time? Which country does each of the animals in the picture represent? (Question 3 in 1986) The Great Powers divided China, with the Dog, Bear, Frog, Sun and Eagle representing Britain, Russia, France, Japan and the United States respectively.
Heroic resistance	28		Fill in the blanks: In 1661, the Dutch colonists who were entrenched in Taiwan surrendered to Zheng Chenggong and Taiwan was returned to the embrace of the motherland. (Question 32 in 1993) In the Opium War, the people of _Sanyuanli__ (place name) in the northern suburbs of Guangzhou rose up against the British invading army, showing the heroic spirit of the Chinese people who braved violence and dared to fight with the enemy. (Question 5 in 1978) At the Wajao Fort Conference, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China determined the policy of establishing an anti-Japanese national united front. The main basis for this decision was: (C) A. the intensification of domestic class contradictions B. the division of the Kuomintang camp C. the rise of the Sino-Japanese national contradiction as the main contradiction D. the rise of the anti-Japanese salvation movement (Question 23 in 2005)
Total	124
In World History
Colonization		23	In the First Industrial Revolution, the one who looted the most wealth from the colonies and used it for industrialization was most likely (A) A. Britain B. France C. America D. Russia (Question 15 in 1991) Fill in the blanks: In early 1919, the British Civil Administration announced the Rowlatt Act, which aroused the strong opposition of the Indian people, and on April 13, the colonial army staged the Amritsar massacre, which shocked the world. (Question 20 in 1986)
Workers’ Movement		20	In 1871 the Paris Commune issued a message saying: You are a country laborer tortured by usurers, lessees, estate owners and farmers, poor short workers and small owners …… the best part of the product of your labor is to be given to people who do nothing.” The main intention of issuing this message is: (A) A. to call on the workers and peasants to revolt quickly B. further consolidate the revolutionary alliance of workers and peasants C. to announce the complete abolition of private ownership of property D. to gain the support of the rural masses (Question 28 in 2001) Both the June Uprising of Paris workers in 1848 and the Paris Commune Uprising in 1871 belonged to: (A) A. sudden armed and political struggle B. conscious armed struggle and economic struggle C. programmed armed struggle and political struggle D. prepared armed struggle and economic struggle (Question 29 in 1999)
Enslaved Slaves		9	Fill in the blank: During the American abolitionist movement in the 1830s, many secret contact points were organized to help black slaves in the South escape to the North, called the “Underground Railroad.” (Question 22 in 1984) (2018年全国2卷 第33题) The following chart illustrates the slave trade: (A) A. was a means of early capitalist expansion B. contributed to the final establishment of the world colonial system C. led to the creation of the “Empire of the Sunset” D. the need for silver mining reached its peak (Question 33 in 2018)
Total		52
The Narrative of War
World War I		25	Fill in the blanks: At the beginning of the First World War the war in Europe had three fronts on display. The countries fighting on two fronts were: Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. (Question 45 in 1991)
World War II		55	List the four major international conferences during the Second World War and the countries that participated in each conference. Cairo Conference (with the participation of China, Britain and the United States), Tehran Conference (with the participation of the Soviet Union, the United States and Britain), Yalta Conference (with the participation of the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union) and Potsdam Conference (with the participation of the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union) (Question 45 in 1991) The main reasons for France’s rapid military defeat in World War II were: (A) A. a passive defensive approach by virtue of the Maginot Line B. loss of due vigilance against Germany C. Dunkirk retreat prematurely diverted a large number of troops D. sellout generals took the initiative to surrender to Germany (Question 32 in 1998)
Opium Wars		26	The following countries had ceded Chinese territories after the Opium War: (ADE) A. Britain B. France C. Germany D. Russia E. Japan (Question 14 in 1998)
0there wars		24	Analyze the differences between the U.S. war against Vietnam and the Gulf War and their impact on international relations. Reference: (1) Differences: The Vietnam War was a contest between the United States and Vietnam and its supporters while the Gulf War was a contest between a multinational force and a single country; the Vietnam War was a war waged by the United States and the Gulf War was a UN-authorized operation; the Gulf War was a high-tech war. (2) Impact on international relations: the Vietnam War was conducive to the multipolarization of the world and pushed U.S.-Soviet relations toward détente; the Gulf War strengthened the U.S. sole superpower status and made the situation in the Middle East more complicated. (Question 47 in 2013)
Total		130
The Narrative of the World Community
World Pattern and Cooperation		58	The chart below reflects the changes in UN membership between 1945 and 1975, which shows that: (A) A. the development and growth of the Third World B. the increase in the number of members of the European Community C. The scope of world trade expanded significantly D. The trend of economic regionalization strengthened （Question 35 in 2018 ） From the mid−1950s to the end of the 1950s, the Third World coalition and the struggle against hegemony were highlighted by.C A. the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement B. the beginning of the North-South dialogue C. the convening of the Asian-African Conference D. the formation of the Group of Seventy-Seven (Question 29 in 1994)
China’s role on the world stage		70	Based on the materials, outline the main activities and Chinese influence in China’s participation in the creation of the United Nations. In October 1943, China, the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union signed the Declaration on General Security, which proclaimed the establishment of an international organization for the maintenance of international peace and security after the war and laid the foundation for the establishment of the United Nations. from August to October 1944, representatives of China, the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union met in the United States, and the Chinese delegation put forward a number of proposals on principles for dealing with international disputes, which were later incorporated into the United Nations Charter and became known as the “Chinese proposals. On October 9, China, the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union simultaneously issued the “Proposal for the Establishment of a Universal International Organization,” which established the basic contents of the future UN Charter. On June 25, the Constituent Assembly unanimously adopted the Charter of the United Nations. The following day, the 50 participating countries held a signing ceremony, and the Chinese delegation was the first to sign the charter. China became one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council. – Excerpted from “General History of Modern China,” edited by Zhang Haipeng (Question 45 in 2018)
Total		128
The Narrative of the Celestial Empire
Foreign visits		20	Fill in the blanks: In the Book of Later Han, it is recorded that the king of the Great Qin sent an envoy to China in 166 AD and presented gifts to “Emperor Huan of Han,” which is the earliest record of friendship between China and Europe. （Question 2 in 1987）
Travel and Exchange		31	Fill in the blanks: In the fifteenth century, the great Chinese navigator Zheng He made seven voyages to the West, and his first voyage departed 87 years earlier than Columbus’ first arrival in America. (Question 18 in 1981) The monk who went to Japan to spread Tang culture was (C) Xuanzang Yijing C. Jianzhen D. Fa Xian (Question 20 in 2004)
Border Dispute		25	Explanation of the noun: Battle of Yaxark. The two wars of annihilation fought by the Chinese army against the invading Russian army in order to recover the territory of Yaksa from the 24th to the 27th year of the Kangxi era (1685–1688). It was the first self-defense counterattack by China against Russia. (Question 5 in 1979)
Total		76
The Narrative of Social Formations
Slave society		37	Fill in the blanks: During the Roman Republic, in addition to efforts, there were two opposing political forces at home and abroad: the nobility and the plebeians (Question 16 in 1986) In the early days of the Roman Republic, when Rome was attacked by foreigners, the plebeians repeatedly withdrew their own formations from Rome and refused to fight, forcing the nobility to make political concessions. The creation of the Law of the Twelve Bronze Tables was one of the fruits of this struggle. It can be seen that at that time: (B) A. the aristocracy gradually lost its dominant position in making laws B. the common people took effective ways to fight for their rights C. the aristocracy played a decisive role in the development of the rule of law by giving way D. the political aspirations of the commoners and the nobles were becoming more and more consistent (Question 32 in 2014)
feudalistic society		26	The following items were not the measures of the Taika Era Reforms: A. A. Allowing nobles to establish estates B. Turning ministers into “citizens” of the state C. Prohibiting peasants from buying and selling land allocated by the state D. Reforming the administrative system (Question 16 in 1994)
Capitalist Society		63	The great crisis of the 1930s and the economic crisis of the 1970s in the West have in common: (ABD) A. destroyed social productivity B. had far-reaching effects on the entire capitalist world C. economic stagnation D. forced the Western world to make policy adjustments (Question 30 in 1994)
Total		126
The Narrative of Communism
Socialist Theory		13	The British idealistic socialist Owen: (D) A. pointed out that capitalism was an evil world in which “right and wrong are reversed B. believed that private ownership was one of the roots of the evils of capitalist society C. saw that the bourgeoisie and the proletariat were different classes D. advocated the establishment of the ideal social organization “franciscan” (Question 17 in 1994) In June 1847, the League of the Just changed its name to the Communist League, replacing the old slogan “All brothers” with the new slogan “Proletarians of the world, unite.” The aim of the League was to liberate mankind by spreading the theory of communal ownership of property and seeking its realization as soon as possible. This change shows that:A A. the acceptance of Marx’s revolutionary theory by the Communist League B. the birth of Marxism gave impetus to the struggle of the proletariat C. the workers’ movement began to rise in the major capitalist countries of Europe D. the contradiction between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie became the main social contradiction (Question 33 in 2018)
Socialist Practice		25	When the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was founded, the constituent republics were (A) A. Ukraine, Transcaucasia, Belarus, Russia B.Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania C.Transcaucasia, Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia D. Transcaucasia, Belarus, Russia, Georgia (Question 19 in 1993) In 1928 the Soviet Union began its first five-year plan, which did not attract much attention from the Americans, and this changed four years later with the publication of numerous books on the Soviet Union, such as The Dawn of Russia, Russia Today: What Can We Learn from It?. What attracted Americans to the Soviet Union at that time was mainly (B) A. less damage caused by the economic crisis B. the remarkable achievements of industrialization C. collectivization of agriculture to ensure urban supply D. the public ownership system showed its superiority. (Question 34 in 2016)
Total		38