Comparing the Anglo-American and Israeli-American Special Relationships in the Obama Era: An Alliance Persistence Perspective

ABSTRACT

The Anglo-American and Israeli-American special relationships have proved to be unusually close and have confounded expectations that they would wither away with the changing international environment. In order to explain this, the article proposes a theory of ‘alliance persistence’ that is based on reciprocity over shared geostrategic interests, sentimental attachments and institutionalised security relations. The article employs this theoretical framework to explore how Anglo-American and Israeli-American relations have developed during the Obama administration. It argues that the Anglo-American relationship has been closer because of the two countries’ shared strategic interests, whilst the Israeli-American relationship has experienced divergences in how the security interests of the two sides have been pursued. The article concludes by assessing how the two relationships will fair in the post-Obama era and argues that there are numerous areas of tension in the US-Israeli relationship that risk future tensions.

KEY WORDS:

• Alliance
• US-UK
• US-Israel
• Special Relationship
• Obama

Notes

¹ Please ensure figures will be understandable when reproduced in black and white. The American Presidency Project, ‘Public Papers of the Presidents’, <http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php>.

² Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov, ‘The United States and Israel since 1948: A “Special Relationship”’, Diplomatic History 22/2 (1998), 231.

³ John J. Mearsheimer and Stephen M. Walt, ‘Is it Love or the Lobby? Explaining America’s Special Relationship with Israel’, Security Studies 18/1 (2009), 73.

⁴ For arguments in support of Israel as a strategic asset for the US, see Robert D. Blackwill and Walter B. Slocombe, ‘Israel: A Strategic Asset for the United States’, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2011, <http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/Blackwill-Slocombe_Report.pdf>; Michael Eisenstadt, and David Pollock, ‘Asset Test: How the United States Benefits from its Alliance with Israel’, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2012, <http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/StrategicReport07.pdf>.

⁵ For arguments in support of Americans’ strong identification with Israel, see Jerome Slater, ‘The Two Books of Mearsheimer and Walt’, Security Studies 18/1 (2009), 4–57; Michael J. Koplow, ‘Value Judgement: Why Do Americans Support Israel’, Security Studies 20/2 (2011), 266–302; Jonathan Rynhold, The Arab-Israeli Conflict in American Political Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

⁶ Robert McCalla, ‘NATO’s Persistence after the Cold War’, International Organization 50/3 (1996), 445–75.

⁷ John S. Duffield, ‘NATO’s Functions after the Cold War’, Political Science Quarterly 109/5 (1994), 763–87; Robert B. McCalla, ‘NATO’s Persistence after the Cold War’, International Organization 50/3 (1996), 445–75; Celeste Wallander, ‘Institutional Assets and Adaptability: NATO after the Cold War’, International Organization 54/4 (2000), 705–35.

⁸ Thomas Risse-Kappen, ‘Collective Identity in a Democratic Community: The Case of NATO’, in Peter Katzenstein (ed.), The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 366–67.

⁹ Jae Jeok Park, ‘The Persistence of the US-led Alliances in the Asia-Pacific: An Order Insurance Explanation’, International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 13/3 (2013), 348.

¹⁰ Thomas Risse-Kappen, ‘Collective Identity in a Democratic Community: The Case of NATO’, in Peter Katzenstein (ed.), The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 366–67.

¹¹ Justin Gibbins, Britain, Europe and National Identity: Self and Other in International Relations (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 4.

¹² Alexander Wendt, ‘Collective Identity Formation and the International State’, American Political Science Review 88/2 (1994), 390.

¹³ Ibid.

¹⁴ Michael Barnett, ‘Identity and Alliances in the Middle East’, in Peter Katzenstein (ed.), The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 408.

¹⁵ Robert Keohane, ‘Alliances, Threats and the Use of Neorealism’, International Security 13/1 (1988), 174; McCalla, ‘NATO’s Persistence after the Cold War’, 462; Stephen Walt, ‘Why Alliances Endure or Collapse’, Survival 39/1 (1997), 166.

¹⁶ Ibid., 167.

¹⁷ Paul Pierson, ‘Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics’, American Political Science Review 94/2 (2000), 252.

¹⁸ Walt, ‘Why Alliances Endure or Collapse’, 166; Celeste Wallander and Robert Keohane, ‘Risk, Threat, and Security Institutions’, in Helga Haftendorn, Robert O. Keohane and Celeste A. Wallander (eds), Imperfect Unions: Security Institutions over Time and Space (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 33.

¹⁹ John Ikenberry, After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 16–17.

²⁰ See David Reynolds, ‘The Creation of the Anglo-American Alliance, 1937-1941: A Study in Competitive Cooperation’ (London: Europa Publications, 1981); Kathleen Burk, ‘Old World, New World: Great Britain and America from the Beginning’ (London: Little Brown, 2007); Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov, ‘The United States and Israel since 1948: A “Special Relationship”’, Diplomatic History 22/2 (1998), 231–62.

²¹ A recent report from the Centre for Economic and Business Research (CEBR) predicts that the UK will surpass both Germany and Japan to become the fourth largest economy in the world in 2030s. See Kedar Grandhi, ‘UK Tipped to Become World’s Fourth-Largest Economy in 2030s’, International Business Times, 26 December 2015, <http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/uk-tipped-become-worlds-fourth-largest-economy-2030s-1534942>.

²² Katie Lynch, ‘China and the Security Council: Congruence of the Voting between Permanent Members’, China Papers 5 (2009), p. 9.

²³ Adam D. M. Svendsen, ‘Strained Relations? Evaluating Contemporary Anglo-American Intelligence and Security Co-operation’, in Alan Dobson and Steve Marsh (eds), Anglo-American Relations: Contemporary Perspectives. London (New York: Routledge, 2013), 213.

²⁴ ISAF, ‘ISAF Placemat Archives’, <http://www.isaf.nato.int/isaf-placemat-archives.html>; Brookings Institution, ‘Iraq Index on December 11, 2009‘, <http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Centers/saban/iraq%20index/index20091211.PDF>.

²⁵ Matthew d’Ancona, In It Together: The Inside Story of the Coalition Government (London: the Penguin Group, 2013), 170; Hillary Clinton, Hard Choices (London: Simon & Schuster UK, 2014), 375.

²⁶ House of Commons Defence Committee, ‘The situation in Iraq and Syria and the response to al-Dawla al-Islamiya fi al-Iraq alSham (DAESH)’, 27 January 2015, <http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmdfence/690/690.pdf, pp. 35-36>.

²⁷ Chas Freeman, ‘What’s in it for America’, in ‘Israel: Asset or Liability’, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Washington, DC, 2010, 13.

²⁸ Dov S. Zakheim, ‘Mr. Oren’s Planet: A Bogus Account from Israel’s Man in Washington’, The National Interest, 21 August 2015, <http://www.nationalinterest.org/feature/mr-oren%E2%80%99s-planet-bogus-account-israel%E2%80%99s-man-washington-13648>.

²⁹ In 2008 the US Congress passed a series of laws aimed at preserving Israel’s QME. This compelled the Obama administration to provide generous Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and privileged arms sales. In December 2014 the US-Israel Strategic Partnership Act raised Israel’s status from a major non-NATO ally to a major strategic partner, requiring ‘frequent QME assessments and executive-legislation consultations’. See Jim Zanotti, ‘Israel: Background and U.S. Relations’, Congressional Research Service, 1 June 2015, <https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33476.pdf>.

³⁰ Ibid., 35–36.

³¹ Raphael Poch, ‘Israeli Air Force Ranked Mightiest in the World’, Breaking Israel News, 30 October 2014, <http://www.breakingisraelnews.com/23511/israeli-air-force-ranked-mightiest-world/#dMDFz0k4EzrPKzMr.97>.

³² John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt, The Israel Lobby and US Foreign Policy (London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007), 63.

³³ Giorgio Cafiero and Peter Certo, ‘Hamas and Hezbollah Agree to Disagree on Syria’, The World Post, 31 January 2014, <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/giorgio-cafiero/hamas-and-hezbollah-agree_b_4698024.html>; Mariam Karouny and Dominic Evans, ‘Iran, Hezbollah Join Russian Jets and Syrian Army in Attack on Islamic State’, The Sydney Morning Herald, 17 October 2015, < http://www.smh.com.au/world/syrian-army-russian-jets-attack-islamic-state-in-aleppo-as-us-urges-caution-20151016-gkbf06.html>; Adnan Abu Amer, ‘Fight against IS Draws Hamas, Egypt Closer’, Al-Monitor, 1 July 2015, <http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/06/egypt-gaza-hamas-rapprochement.html#>.

³⁴ Dov Waxman, ‘The Real Problems in US-Israeli Relations’, The Washington Quarterly (Spring 2012), 74.

³⁵ Mearsheimer and Walt, The Israel Lobby and US Foreign Policy, 302.

³⁶ Steven Simon, ‘An Israeli Strike on Iran’, Contingency Planning Memorandum, Council on Foreign Relations, no. 5 (November 2009), <file:///C:/Users/ldxrx/Downloads/CPA_contingencymemo_5.pdf>.

³⁷ Robert Gates, Duty: Memoirs of a Secretary at War (London: WH Allen, 2014), 328.

³⁸ Isabel Kershner, ‘Iran Deal Denounced by Netanyahu as ‘Historic Mistake’’, The New York Times, 14 July 2015, <http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/15/world/middleeast/iran-nuclear-deal-israel.html>; Elie Leshem, ‘Netanyahu: Iran Deal Will Bring War, “Nightmare” Atomic Arms Race’, The Times of Israel, 4 August 2015, <http://www.timesofisrael.com/netanyahu-nightmare-iran-deal-will-bring-war-atomic-arms-race/>.

³⁹ Adam Entous, ‘Israel Spied on Iran Nuclear Talks with U.S.’, The Wall Street Journal, 23 March 2015, <http://www.wsj.com/articles/israel-spied-on-iran-talks-1427164201>.

⁴⁰ Eisenstadt and Pollock, ‘Asset Test: How the United States Benefits from its Alliance with Israel’, 10–29.

⁴¹ Nicole Goebel, ‘Obama Tells Cameron BP Criticism is not Anti-British’, DW, 13 June 2010, <http://www.dw.com/en/obama-tells-cameron-bp-criticism-is-not-anti-british/a-5679351>.

⁴² The Sun, ‘Death Notice: The Special Relationship’, 30 August 2013, <http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/politics/5107363/France-takes-Britains-place-as-Americas-closest-ally.html>.

⁴³ Anthony Faiola, ‘British Prime Minister David Cameron Loses Parliamentary Vote on Syrian Military Strike’, The Washington Post, 29 August 2013 <https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/british-prime-minister-david-cameron-loses-parliamentary-vote-on-syrian-military-strike/2013/08/29/4fabb080-10f7-11e3-bdf6-e4fc677d94a1_story.html>.

⁴⁴ Michael Oren, Ally: My Journey across the American-Israeli Divide (New York: Random House, 2015), 103, 140.

⁴⁵ Ibid., 134, 139.

⁴⁶ Ibid., 136.

⁴⁷ Ibid., 181.

⁴⁸ Ibid., 211, 368.

⁴⁹ Ibid., 223.

⁵⁰ Chris McGreal, ‘Netanyahu’s Speech to Congress: Long on Terror, Short on Substance’, The Guardian, 3 March 2015 <http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/03/binyamin-netanyahu-speech-congress-long-on-terror-short-on-substance>.

⁵¹ Mel Levine and Oded Eran, ‘What Netanyahu Can Do to Save U.S.-Israel Ties’, Politico Magazine, 16 February 2015 <http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/02/benjamin-netanyahu-israel-congress-iran-115220_Page2.html#.VXFu7tJViko>.

⁵² Gallup, ‘Country Ratings’, 2015 <http://www.gallup.com/poll/1624/perceptions-foreign-countries.aspx>.

⁵³ Thomas Raines, ‘Internationalism or Isolationism? The Chatham House–YouGov Survey: British Attitudes towards the UK’s International Priorities’, 30 January 2015 <http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/field/field_document/20150130Raines.pdf/>.

⁵⁴ John Dumbrell, ‘Hating Bush, Supporting Washington: George W. Bush, Anti-Americanism and the US-UK Special Relationship’, in John Dumbrell and Alex R. Schäfer (eds), America’s ‘Special Relationships’: Foreign and Domestic Aspects of the Politics of Alliance (Abingdon: Taylor & Francis, 2009), 45–59.

⁵⁵ Rynhold, The Arab-Israeli Conflict in American Political Culture, 22.

⁵⁶ Lee Marsden, ‘US-Israel Relations: A Special Relationship’, in John Dumbrell and Alex R. Schäfer (ed.), America’s ‘Special Relationships’: Foreign and Domestic Aspects of the Politics of Alliance (Abingdon: Taylor & Francis, 2009), 194.

⁵⁷ Rynhold, The Arab-Israeli Conflict in American Political Culture, 114; Koplow, ‘Value Judgement: Why do Americans Support Israel?’, 279.

⁵⁸ Jerome Slater, ‘The Two Books of Mearsheimer and Walt’, 4–57.

⁵⁹ Rynhold, The Arab-Israeli Conflict in American Political Culture, 184–88.

⁶⁰ Mark Rosenblum and Dan Fleshler, ‘The Quest for Impact: Lessons Learned from the American Jewish Peace Camp’, in Robert O. Freedman (ed.), Israel and the United States: Six Decades of US-Israeli Relations (Boulder: Westview Press, 2012), 273.

⁶¹ Avi Lewis, ‘J Street Defends Iran Deal in Full-page NYTimes Ad’, The Times of Israel, 23 July 2015 <http://www.timesofisrael.com/j-street-defends-iran-deal-in-full-page-nytimes-ad/>; Elise Labott, Deirdre Walsh and Sunlen Serfaty, ‘Washington Battle Rages over Iran Nuclear Deal’s Fate’, 3 August 2015 <http://edition.cnn.com/2015/08/03/politics/aipac-iran-nuclear-deal-congress/>;

⁶² Jeffrey T. Richelson, and Desmond Ball, The Ties That Bind: Intelligence Cooperation between the UKUSA Countries—the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Canada, Australia and New Zealand (London: Unwin Hyman Ltd, 1990), 153; Michael Herman (former JIC Secretary), interview by author, 17 November 2014.

⁶³ NSA, ‘New UKUSA Agreement – 10 May 1955‘, June 2010 <https://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/ukusa/new_ukusa_agree_10may55.pdf>.

⁶⁴ Adam D.M. Svendsen, Intelligence Cooperation and the War on Terror: Anglo-American Security Relations after 9/11 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), 14.

⁶⁵ Nick Hopkins and Julian Borger, ‘NSA Pays £100m in Secret Funding for GCHQ’, The Guardian, 1 August 2013 <http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/aug/01/nsa-paid-gchq-spying-edward-snowden>.

⁶⁶ The UK Government, ‘UK-US Co-operation on Cyberspace’, 25 May 2011 <https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-us-co-operation-on-cyberspace>.

⁶⁷ White House, ‘FACT SHEET: U.S.-United Kingdom Cybersecurity Cooperation’, 16 January 2015 <http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/01/16/fact-sheet-us-united-kingdom-cybersecurity-cooperation>.

⁶⁸ The Associated Press, ‘Hamas Kills Islamic State Supporter in Gaza Crackdown’, The New York Times, 2 June 2015 <http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/06/02/world/middleeast/ap-ml-palestinians-gaza.html?_r=0>.

⁶⁹ Glenn Greenwald and Andrew Fishman, ‘Netanyahu’s Spying Denials Contradicted by Secret NSA Documents’, 25 March 2015 <https://firstlook.org/theintercept/2015/03/25/netanyahus-spying-denial-directly-contradicted-secret-nsa-documents/>.

⁷⁰ Adam Entous, ‘Israel Spied on Iran Nuclear Talks with U.S.’, The Wall Street Journal, 23 March 2015 <http://www.wsj.com/articles/israel-spied-on-iran-talks-1427164201>.

⁷¹ The Guardian, ‘NSA and Israeli Intelligence: Memorandum of Understanding – Full Document’, 11 September 2013 <http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2013/sep/11/nsa-israel-intelligence-memorandum-understanding-document>.

⁷² Ephraim Kahana, ‘Mossad-CIA Cooperation’, International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 14/3 (2001), 409–20.

⁷³ House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee, Global Security: UK –US Relations (London: The Stationery Office Limited, 2010), Ev87.

⁷⁴ House of Commons, ‘Official Report’, Column 1149 W, February 27 2009 <http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200809/cmhansrd/cm090227/text/90227w0011.htm>.

⁷⁵ The Trident Commission, ‘Concluding Report’, July 2014 <http://www.basicint.org/publications/trident-commission/2014/trident-commission-concluding-report>.

⁷⁶ The Economist, ‘A Political Torpedo’, 5 September 2015 <http://www.economist.com/news/britain/21663231-chancellor-launches-well-timed-announcement-two-political-foes-political-torpedo>.

⁷⁷ Fredrik Dahl, ‘U.N. Nuclear Assembly Rejects Arab Bid to Pressure Israel’, Reuters, 25 September 2014 <http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/25/us-nuclear-iaea-israel-idUSKCN0HK14C20140925>.

⁷⁸ Louis Charbonneau, ‘Israel Thanks U.S. for Stand on Mideast Nuclear Arms Ban at U.N.’, Reuters, 23 May 2015 <http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/05/23/us-US-israel-un-nuclear-idUSKBN0O80O320150523>.

⁷⁹ Eisenstadt and Pollock, ‘Asset Test: How the United States Benefits from its Alliance with Israel’, 14.

⁸⁰ Oren, Ally: My Journey across the American-Israeli Divide, 88.

⁸¹ Chris Wood, ‘Military Exercise—Red Flag 15-3’, Global Aviation Resource, 13 August 2015 <http://www.globalaviationresource.com/v2/2015/08/13/military-exercise-red-flag-15-3/>.

⁸² Gili Cohen Gili, ‘U.S., Israel Kick off Joint Exercise to Train Troops in Battling Missiles’, Haaretz, 18 May 2014 <http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/1.591253>.

⁸³ White House, ‘Joint Fact Sheet: U.S. and UK Defence Cooperation’, 14 March 2012 <http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/03/14/joint-fact-sheet-us-and-uk-defense-cooperation>.

⁸⁴ UK Ministry of Defence, ‘UK and US Service Chiefs Discuss Future Strategic Challenges’, 28 March 2013 <https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-us-service-chiefs-discuss-future-strategic-challenges>.

⁸⁵ The UK Government, ‘The US-UK Joint Strategy Board’, 25 May 2011 <https://www.gov.uk/government/news/the-us-uk-joint-strategy-board>.

⁸⁶ JTA, ‘U.S., Israel Differ on Emphases in Strategic Dialogue’, 14 September 2014 <http://www.jta.org/2014/09/14/news-opinion/united-states/u-s-israel-differ-in-emphases-in-strategic-dialogue>.

⁸⁷ Ran Dagoni, ‘US Fails to Renew Emergency Oil Supply Pact with Israel’, 16 March 2015 <http://www.globes.co.il/en/article-us-fails-to-renew-oil-supply-agreement-with-israel-1001018925>.

⁸⁸ Zanotti, ‘Israel: Background and U.S. Relations’, 31.

⁸⁹ Glenn Greenwald and Andrew Fishman, ‘Netanyahu’s Spying Denials Contradicted by Secret NSA Documents’, The Intercept, 25 March 2015 <https://firstlook.org/theintercept/2015/03/25/netanyahus-spying-denial-directly-contradicted-secret-nsa-documents/>.

⁹⁰ David Shambaugh, ‘Assessing the US ‘Pivot’ to Asia’, Strategic Studies 7/2 (2013), 10–19.

⁹¹ The UK government, ‘Government Response to the House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee’s Eighth Report of Session 2013-14 (HC695)’, June 2014 <https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/317431/40640_Cm_8876_Accessible.pdf>.

⁹² Anand Menon, ‘Littler England’, Foreign Affairs, November/December <https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/western-europe/littler-england>; Nick Cohen, ‘Britain Doesn’t Have a Foreign Policy’, The Observer, 16 March 2015 <http://nickcohen.net/2015/03/16/britain-doesnt-have-a-foreign-policy/>.

⁹³ The UK government, ‘Securing Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The Strategic Defence and Security Review’, October 2010 <https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/62482/strategic-defence-security-review.pdf>.

⁹⁴ United Nations, ‘State of Palestine Flag to Fly at United Nations Headquarters Offices, as General Assembly Adopts Resolution on Non-Member Observer States’, 10 October 2015 <http://www.un.org/press/en/2015/ga11676.doc.htm>.

⁹⁵ Ariel Ilan Roth, ‘Reassurance: A Strategic Basis of U.S. Support for Israel’, International Studies Perspectives 10/4 (2009), 378–93.

⁹⁶ House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee, Global Security: UK –US Relations, Ev 107.

⁹⁷ Tal Kopan, ‘Senate Democrats deliver Obama’s Iran nuclear deal support’, CNN, 8 September 2015 <http://edition.cnn.com/2015/09/08/politics/iran-nuclear-deal-richard-blumenthal-ron-wyden-gary-peters-obama-democrats/>.

⁹⁸ David Richards, Taking Command (London: Headline, 2014), 305.

⁹⁹ Aryeh Savir, ‘Israeli and US Air Forces Sign Historic Strategic Pact’, World Israel News, 14 June 2015 <http://worldisraelnews.com/israeli-and-us-air-forces-sign-strategic-pact/>.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ruike Xu

Ruike Xu earned his PhD from the School of Politics and International Relations at the University of Nottingham. His book entitled Alliance Persistence within the Anglo-American Special Relationship: The Post-Cold War Era will be published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2016.

Wyn Rees

Wyn Rees is Professor of International Security in the School of Politics and International Relations at the University of Nottingham and is author or editor of 13 books.