A legitimate sphere of influence: Understanding France’s turn to multilateralism in Africa

Figures & data

Table 1. France’s military interventions in Africa, 1989–2019.

Target country, operation code name	Launch date	Multilateral endorsement: Organisation and date	Mission objectives
Comoros Islands (Operation Oside)	7 December 1989	None	Restore stability after attempted rebel takeover
Gabon (Operation Requin)	23 May 1990	None	Restore stability in major cities during civil unrest
Rwanda (Operation Noroît)	4 October 1990	None	Support Hutu government in the face of attempted takeover by Tutsi rebels
Togo (Operation Verdier)	28 November 1991	None	Separate belligerents after breakdown of power-sharing government
Djibouti (Operation Iskoutir)	February 1992	None	Provide humanitarian assistance; support government
Rwanda (Operation Turquoise)	23 June 1994	UNSC (Res. 929, 22/6/1994)	Protect civilians; establish humanitarian safe zone in southwestern Rwanda
Comoros Islands (Operation Azalée)	29 September 1995	None	Prevent attempted rebel takeover
Cameroon (Operation Aramis)	17 February 1996	None	Support national government in border dispute with Nigeria
CAR (Operation Almandin)	8 April 1996	None	Foil attempted army mutiny; restore stability
Côte d’Ivoire (Operation Licorne)	22 September 2002	ECOWAS (26/1/2003);^a UNSC (Res. 1464, 4/2/2003)	Separate rebel and government forces; protect civilians
Democratic Republic of the Congo (Operation Artemis)	12 June 2003	UNSC (Res. 1484, 30/5/2003); EU (5/6/2003)^b	Restore stability in and around the city of Bunia; contribute to civilian protection
Chad (EUFOR Chad-CAR)	28 January 2008	UNSC (Res. 1778, 25/9/2007); EU (15/10/2007)^c	Prevent cross-border rebel movements; contribute to civilian protection
Libya (Operation Harmattan)	19 March 2011	Arab League (12/3/2011);^d UNSC (Res. 1793, 17/3/2011)	Protect civilians
Côte d’Ivoire (Operation Licorne II)	2 April 2011	ECOWAS (24/12/2010);^e UNSC (Res. 1975, 30/3/2011)	Protect civilians; facilitate enforcement of electoral outcome
Mali (Operation Serval)	11 January 2013	ECOWAS (19/1/2013);^f UNSC (Res. 2100, 25/4/2013)	Prevent rebel takeover of capital, Bamako; help stabilise the country
CAR (Operation Sangaris)	5 December 2013	AU (13/11/2013);^g UNSC (Res. 2127, 5/12/2013)	Protect civilians
Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger (Operation Barkhane)	31 July 2014	G5 Sahel (8/2014);^h UNSC (Res. 2227, 29/5/2015; Res. 2359, 21/6/2017)	Support national governments in counterterrorism operations

Sources: French Ministry of Defence, ‘50 Ans d’Opex en Afrique, 1964–2014ʹ, Cahier du RETEX (Paris: 2014); Committee on Foreign Affairs, French National Assembly, ‘Engagement and Diplomacy: What Doctrine for Our Military Interventions?’, Report no. 2777, annex I, 20 May 2015, available at http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/14/pdf/rap-info/i2777.pdf

^a UN, ‘Conclusions of the Conference of Heads of State on Côte d’Ivoire’ (Paris: 25–26 Jan. 2003), Doc. S/2003/99, available at https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/CI_030126_Paris%20Conclusions.pdf/.

^b EU Council, ‘Joint Action 2003/423/CFSP on the European Union Military Operation in the Democratic Republic of Congo’ (Brussels: 5 June 2003), available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32003E0423&from=EN.

^c EU Council, ‘Joint Action 2007/677/CFSP on the European Union Military Operation in the Republic of Chad and in the Central African Republic’ (Brussels: 15 Oct. 2007), available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32007E0677&from=EN.

^d Arab League, ‘Outcome of the Council Meeting at the Ministerial Level in its Extraordinary Session on the Implications of the Current Events in Libya’ (Cairo: 12 Mar. 2011), available at http://responsibilitytoprotect.org/Arab%20League%20Ministerial%20level%20statement%2012%20march%202011%20-%20english(1).pdf

^e ECOWAS, ‘Extraordinary Session of the Authority of Heads of State and Government on Côte d’Ivoire’, final communiqué (Abuja: 24 Dec. 2010), available at http://www.ecowas.int/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/2010-24-december-Extra.pdf

^f ECOWAS, ‘Extraordinary Session of the Authority of Heads of State and Government’, final communiqué (Abidjan: 19 Jan. 2013), available at https://www.ecowas.int/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/2013-Extra-Jan-Mali.pdf

^g AU, ‘Decision of the Peace and Security Council on the situation in the Central African Republic’, 406th meeting (Addis Ababa: 13 Nov. 2013), available at http://www.peaceau.org/uploads/auc-psc-com-406-car-13-11-2013.pdf

^h Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Armed Forces, French Senate, ‘France’s External Interventions: Strengthening Military Effectiveness through a Comprehensive and Coordinated Approach’, Report no. 794, 13 July 2016, 52, available at https://www.senat.fr/rap/r15-794/r15-7941.pdf