Experience of discrimination in egalitarian societies: the Sámi and majority populations in Sweden and Norway

Figures & data

Table 1. Sample sizes in different survey stages.

	Norway			Sweden
	Sámi BG	Other	Total	Sámi BG	Other	Total
Contacted people	–	–	11,153	–	–	6265
Telephone interview	1072 44.7%	1324 55.3%	2396 (21.5%)	847 28.0%	2173 72%	3020 (48.2%)
Questionnaire	254 50.6%	248 49.4%	502 (21.0%)	284 30.9%	634 69.1%	918 (30.4%)
Vocabulary task in majority language	86 40.1%	124 59.0%	210 (41.8%)	149 27.8%	387 72.2%	536 (58.4%)
Vocabulary task in North Sámi	65 55.6%	52 44.4%	117 (23.3%)	82 47.7%	90 52.3%	172 (18.7%)

Note: Percentages in parentheses indicate response rate with respect to the previous stage. “BG” stands for ethnic background.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics: categorical variables.

	Norway		Sweden		Source
	N	Ratio	N	Ratio
Discrimination experience	268	11.2%	534	17.7%	TI
Discrimination experience	90	17.9%	243	26.5%	Q
Sámi background	1072	44.7%	847	28.0%	TI
National minority background	242	10.1%	804	26.6%	TI
Immigrant background	192	8.0%	211	7.0%	TI
Majority background	889	37.1%	1142	37.8%	TI
Sami spoken at home – self	233	21.7%	173	20.4%	TI-SO
Sami spoken at home – parent	473	44.1%	260	30.7%	TI-SO
Sami spoken at home – grandparent	787	73.4%	458	54.1%	TI-SO
Gender: male	1119	46.7%	1361	45.1%	TI
Gender: female	1277	53.3%	1636	54.2%	TI
Gender: diverse	0	0.0%	6	0.2%	TI
Education: pre-tertiary	129	25.7%	401	43.7%	Q
Education: advanced vocational	60	12.0%	171	18.6%	Q
Education: University	254	50.6%	257	28.0%	Q

Note: TI: telephone interview, Q: Second-stage questionnaire, SO: Sámi only questions.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics: numeric variables.

	Norway
	Min	Median	Mean	Max	St. Dev.	Source
Adjusted household income (NOK)	84,600	503,704	567,654	1,791,000	258,067	TI
Age	18	55	54.4	97	16.2	TI
Proficiency in a Sámi language	0.00	0.21	0.66	4.00	1.02	Q
Proficiency in majority home	1.75	4.00	3.66	4.00	0.51	Q
Use of a Sámi language at home	1.00	1.00	1.54	5.00	1.16	Q-SO
General use of a Sámi language	0.00	0.45	0.91	3.85	1.05	Q-SO
General use of majority language	0.00	3.74	3.62	4.00	0.47	Q-SO
Self-placement in social ladder	1	6	6.07	10	1.58	Q
Satisfaction with democracy	1	7	6.45	10	2.10	Q
Fairness of wealth distribution	1	6	5.74	10	2.05	Q
	Sweden
	Min	Median	Mean	Max	St. Dev.	Source
Adjusted household income (SEK)	14,471	314,500	335,918	1138,500	209,191	TI
Age	18	55	53.5	101	17.3	TI
Proficiency in a Sámi language	0.00	0.00	0.35	4.00	0.73	Q
Proficiency in majority language	0.25	4.00	3.66	4.00	0.53	Q
Use of a Sámi language at home	1.00	1.00	1.34	5.00	0.77	Q-SO
General use of a Sámi language	0.00	0.15	0.52	3.69	0.80	Q-SO
General use of majority language	0.84	3.61	3.53	4.00	0.49	Q-SO
Self-placement in social ladder	1	6	5.87	10	1.52	Q
Satisfaction with democracy	1	6	5.69	10	2.34	Q
Fairness of wealth distribution	1	4	3.92	10	1.95	Q

Note: TI: telephone interview, Q: Second-stage questionnaire, SO: Sámi only questions. Language proficiency indicators are self-assessed.

Figure 1. Distribution of discrimination experience between ethnic groups in Norway and Sweden.

Figure 2. Distribution of household income between ethnic groups in Norway and Sweden.

Figure 3. Distribution of the general use of a Sámi language and the majority language among the Sámi in Norway and Sweden.

Table 4. Logit regression models comparing people with and without Sámi background. Outcome variable: discrimination experienced.

	Odds ratios
	Model 1.1	Model 1.2	Model 1.3	Model 1.4	Model 1.5
Ethnic background (ref: majority)
Sámi	2.31***	2.30***	2.68***	1.62***	1.57**
Immigrant	1.92***	1.92***	3.05***	0.87	0.92
National minority	1.39**	1.39**	1.92**	1.20	1.28
Country (ref: Norway)
Sweden	1.82***	1.83***	2.30***	1.93***	1.53**
Adjusted household income	0.85***	0.97	0.85***	0.82***	0.89
Ethnic BG × Income (ref: majority)
Sámi: Income		0.82*
Country × Ethnic BG
Sweden: Sámi			0.81
Proficiency in Sámi				1.39***	1.35***
Self-placement on social ladder					0.86***
Satisfaction with democracy					0.87***
Perceived fairness of wealth distribution					0.92**
Demographics included:	Age, age-squared, gender	Age, age-squared, gender	Age, age-squared, gender	Age, age-squared, gender, education	Age, age-squared, gender, education
N	4420	4420	4420	1248	1248
Null deviance	3709 (4419 df)	3709 (4419 df)	3709 (4419 df)	1363 (1247 df)	1363 (1247 df)
Residual deviance	3393 (4410 df)	3390 (4407 df)	3388 (4407 df)	1261 (1235 df)	1208 (1232 df)
AIC	3413	3416	3414	1287	1240
Log-likelihood	−1697	−1695	−1694	−630	−604

Significance levels: ***p < 0.01 < **p < 0.05 < *p < 0.1.

Table 5. Logit regression models focusing on people with Sámi background. Outcome variable: discrimination experienced.

	Odds ratios
	Model 2.1	Model 2.2	Model 2.3	Model 2.4	Model 2.5
Ethnic background (ref: Sámi only)
Majority and Sámi	0.55***	0.54***	0.55***	0.77	0.81
Country (ref: Norway)
Sweden	1.89***	1.87***	1.65***	1.73**	1.05
Adjusted household income	0.82***	0.91	0.82***	0.77**	0.79*
Sámi spoken at home:
Oneself	2.97***	2.99***	2.43***
parents	1.12	1.11	1.10
Country × Income (ref: Norway)
Sweden: Income		0.82
Country × Sámi at home (ref: Norway)
Sweden: oneself			1.56
Home use of Sámi				1.03
General use of Sámi				1.65***	1.31*
Country × Sámi gen. use (ref: Norway)
Sweden: General use of Sámi					2.04***
Demographics included:	Age, age-squared, gender	Age, age-squared, gender	Age, age-squared, gender	Age, age-squared, gender, education	Age, age-squared, gender, education
N	1570	1570	1570	439	446
Null deviance	1526 (1569 df)	1526 (1569 df)	1526 (1569 df)	530 (438 df)	542 (445 df)
Residual deviance	1323 (1560 df)	1321 (1559 df)	1321 (1559 df)	463 (427 df)	466 (434 df)
AIC	1343	1343	1343	487	490
Log-likelihood	−661	−660	−660	−231	−233

Significance levels: ***p < 0.01 < **p < 0.05 < *p < 0.1.

Table 6. Odds ratio estimates for general language use, from a mixed-effect random-slope model based on Model 2.4, varying across municipalities.

Norway			Sweden
Sámi share	N	Odds ratio	Sámi share	N	Odds ratio
8.50% (Alta)	130	1.50	7.50% (Kiruna)	142	2.04
9.40%–17.50%	41	1.70	8.30%–15.50%	108	2.16
20.70%–68.60%	83	1.08
			Unknown	34	1.71

Note: Sámi share is based on Sámi Parliament electoral roll registration rates, probably lower than true percentages (see also note 3). The “unknown” category in Sweden is due to postcodes that correspond to localities outside the sampling frame, invalid postcodes, and missing data points. In Norway, all data are accurate.