Intersectional solidarity, empathy, or pity? Exploring representations of migrant women in German and British newspapers during the pandemic

Figures & data

Table 1. Intersectional solidarity in the news framework.

	→ POTENTIAL FOR SOCIAL CHANGE →
Logic of representation	Empathy	Instrumental solidarity	Transformative solidarity
Scale of representation	Individual	Individual or collective	Collective
Constructed relationship to audience	Common denominators in identity OR role models/outstanding achievements	Marginalized subjectivities
Conditions of minoritized groups inclusion	Shared identity OR outstanding achievement	No conditions
Context	Personal life Mainly short-term Single issue	Mainly focus on individual/single group Short term Single issue	Broad context Connects to other issues/groups Mainly long-term, multi-issue
Tone	Emotive	Explanatory and analytical
Aim of representation	To be relatable to the audience or provoke an emotive response in the audience	To promote action To promote social change To elucidate structural factors To promote radical inclusion
Types of article	Stories of: Personal resilience Overcoming challenges Relatable stories	Calls for: Political Action Recognition of a single group/individual regarding a single issue	Calls for: Political Action Recognition of minoritized group(s) regarding a shared, often enduring issue

Table 2. Classification of news outlets included within the sample.

	DE	UK
Mainstream Right	Die Welt and Welt Online Bild, Bild Online^a	The Daily Telegraph and Telegraph Online The Sun and The Sun Online
Mainstream Left	Süddeutsche Zeitung	The Guardian and Guardian Online
Minority News	Islamische Zeitung Neuland Zeitung^b	Asian Image Muslim News

^a Including Bild Plus, i.e. online content behind paywall.

^b Unlike the other minority news outlets which cater to different religious and ethnic groups respectively, the Neuland Zeitung is written by and is for migrants within Germany from all national backgrounds.

Figure 1. Summary of methods and sampling.

Table 3. Results from topic modelling and cluster analysis of mainstream news (N = 18,527).

Label topic cluster	N Topics	Description
Border crossing	17	Describing perilous journeys and refugee camp conditions
Management and unequal impacts of Covid-19	11	Describing impacts on e.g. work, health, treatment, vaccination
Politics	8	Covering politics e.g. regarding social/economic issues, EU policy, international court decisions
Refugee and migrant integration	4	Covering e.g. migrant/refugee experiences of integration/inclusion
Risks and danger in crossing borders	2	Covering mistreatment/detainment/asylum
Arts and culture	1	Covering art/cultural content and events

Figure 2. Topic clusters and share of articles with female migrant keywords.

Table 4. Results from topic classification of minority news and share of female migrants (N = 448).

Cluster name	Percent of articles (N)
Border crossing	3.1% (14)
Management and unequal impacts of Covid-19	12.7% (57)
Politics	59.4% (266)
Refugee and migrant integration	15.2% (68)
Risks and danger in crossing borders	4.9% (22)
Arts and culture	4.7% (21)

Table 5. Top 10 adjectives most associated with migrants, migrant women and migrant men using word embeddings.

Migrant	Migrant women	Migrant men
Undocumented	Vulnerable	Old
Small	Undocumented	Young
Young	Unable	First
Alone	Elderly	Good
Vulnerable	Female	British
Poor	First	Black
Numb	Numb	Italian
British	Black	Foreign
Unable	Indian	Alone
Foreign	Foreign	Unable

Table 6. Top nouns (person labels) most associated with migrants and migrant women, using word embedding.

Migrant	Migrant women
Migrant	Girl
Refugee	Worker
Immigrant	Community
Worker	Migrant
Child	Woman
People	Child
Woman	Student
Family	Refugee
Man	Staff
Parent	Nurse
Group	Partner
Community	Group
Citizen	Immigrant
Us	Victim
Girl	Employee

Table A1. Articles cited in text.

Outlet	Date	Title	Summary
The Guardian	14th December 2020	Australia wants international students to study here but abandoned them during the Covid crisis	Reflections and call for action from Colombian female migrant and international student – in reaction to lack of support during the COVID-19 pandemic
Muslim News	13th May 2020	How Govt failed Black, Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities during Covid-19 pandemic	Description and analysis of the unequal impacts of COVID-19 on the population of the UK
Die Bild	4th February 2021	Verzweifelte Eltern reden über den Lockdown; Tränen bei Merkels Bürger-Talk	Reflects on the points raised during Angela Merkel’s annual discussion with citizens – one migrant women’s question is highlighted in the article
The Guardian	1st September 2021	Spanish hotel booking app to show working conditions of staff	Reports on Union-like organization and app to monitor and report potential mistreatment of hotel workers in Spain – in a sector dominated by migrant women
The Guardian	12th May 2020	He lived in the US for forty years. Then he became the first to die from Covid-19 in immigration jail	A man who had lived and worked in the US for over four decades died of COVID in immigration custody. The Guardian report focuses on his sister’s account of the event
The Guardian	1st July 2020	You have to take Action: One hospital cleaner’s journey through the pandemic	The profile of Ernesta, a hospital cleaner who played an integral role in the union and protecting the rights of workers
The Daily Telegraph	31st July 2020	Paulette Wilson	Obituary for a female migrant (from Windrush generation) who campaigned a lot for the rights of the Windrush generation
Sueddeutsche Zeitung	8th September 2020	Eine Frau für das Miteinander; Nükhet Kivran, ehemalige Vorsitzende des Ausländerbeirats, ist im Alter von 56 Jahren gestorben	One woman with a migration background, who was on the migration council in Munich, passed away
Neuland Zeitung	10th October 2021	In Nahmen der Frau	A piece on domestic violence worsening during the pandemic.
The Sun	16th June 2020	Refugees Refuse: One in four Abused	Report on the fact that one in four domestic abuse survivors are rejected from refuges because they have no housing benefit access
The Sun	19th September 2021	Credit Crunch: Universal Credit £20 cut could push domestic abuse victims into poverty, warns charity	Describes rising domestic abuse in pandemic – and the potential increased vulnerability, especially of migrant women – due to government cuts to welfare
The Daily Telegraph	22nd December 2020	Inside New York’s domestic violence shadow pandemic	Reports on rising domestic violence during the pandemic and its potential causes, highlighting the increased vulnerability of migrant women and drawing on several individual’s experiences and accounts
The Daily Telegraph	20th October 2020	“I want to leave but I’m scared”: Pandemic increases risk of violence for Gulf’s Domestic workers	Highlights how the precariousness of many domestic maids situations (working in Gulf state) has become much worse during the pandemic. Reports on working conditions, physical abuse, and human rights abuse
The Daily Telegraph	15th September 2020	Whistleblower nurse alleges “hysterectomies performed on immigrant women” in US	Detained immigrant women under ICE custody undergoing different medical procedures without consent. Reports on whistleblowers account
Neuland Zeitung	Winter/Spring 2021	Article One: Machmal fühle ich mich immer noch hilflos	Discusses a range of challenges on the experience of lockdown in Germany as a migrant
Neuland Zeitung	Winter/Spring 2021	Article Two: Lockdown: eine Zeit mit zwei Zeiten	Discusses the experience of lockdown as an immigrant with the focus on some positive aspects
Asian Image	22nd September 2021	Scotland welcomes Afghan family after immigration battle defies the odds	An Afghan-Scottish man is reunited with wife, children and family after Taliban takeover
Sueddeutsche Zeitung	29th June 2020	CORONA; Vor allem ein großes Unglück	The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on families. Includes focus on several families, the issues they are working through, and the work of Caritas Erding
The Sun	19th December 2020	CUT-PRICE CROSSINGS Small boat smugglers “slash price for migrants” to cross the Channel ahead of festive surge	Highlights the work of people smugglers, who are charging increasing amounts to bring families from Calais to Dover
The Sun	25th March 2021	Be Tough to be Kind on Asylum	Argues that healthy, economically active working men should not be coming to the UK and claiming asylum, but rather the system should be only aiding women and children
The Guardian	4th June 2021	“Outrageous”: why was a US health worker charged with spreading Covid?	Description of the case/attempt to hold a female migrant care worker criminally liable for the spread of Covid – in causing the death of her client. Josefina Brito-Fernandez lost her license to work and faced the possibility of deportation